#|Abasheeva, N. E.; Revenskii, V. A.; Korsunova, T. M.  Influence of industrial effluence of the Selenga pulp and paper mill on soil and plants.  Eurasian Soil Science  vol. 28 (6):  p.122-130.  1996.  Irrigation of alluvial-meadow soil in the Lake Baikal area of Russia by purified industrial effluent with a salt concentration of 758-1319 mg/litre, including 437-745 mg sulfates/litre, led to an increasein the content of exchangeable sodium, the accumulation of fewer nitrates, and a decrease in the activity of cellulose decomposition.  However,a structure-forming effect of the effluent was observed, with a widening of the CHA:CFA ratio. The yield of dry weight of grasses and their nutrition capacity did not differ from the variant receiving river-water irrigation. Brief (10-13 years) irrigation of fodder crops by purified waste water with mineralization of 1.0-1.5 g/litre is permitted; dilution of the effluent with river water is advised to prevent soil degradation.
#|Abbott, J D ; Hinton, S W ; Borton, D L.  Pilot scale validation of the river/fish bioaccumulation modeling program for nonpolar hydrophobic organic compounds using the model compounds 2,3,7,8-TCDD and 2,3,7,8-TCDF.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 1999-2012, 1995.  The interactive and user-friendly PC-computer-based RIVER/FISH mechanistic modeling procedure was evaluated and found to provide credible simulations of aquatic organism bioaccumulation for nonpolar hydrophobic organic chemicals (NPHOCs) using a four-trophic-level food web calculation methodology. Model evaluation included calibration to observations of tetrachlorinated dibenzodioxin and -furan (TCDD/F) bioaccumulation in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) that were exposed in pilot-scale experimental streams receiving biologically treated pulp mill effluent and subsequent comparison of model predictions without bioaccumulation parameter adjustment (validation) to similar but independently obtained bioaccumulation observations. When calibrated with site-specific information on NPHOC loading rates and organism feeding habits, model prediction uncertainty was within U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established standards averaging 1.1 pg/g for the observations used for model validation, which all measured <20 pg/g. The procedure appears suitable for field-scale applications provided the site-specific feeding habits of each organism in the simulated food web can be estimated accurately, all significant chemical loadings are quantified, and the natural variability of bioaccumulation processes is considered when interpreting simulation results.
#|Abbott, J D ; Hinton, S W.  Trends in 2,3,7,8-TCDD concentrations in fish tissues downstream of pulp mills bleaching with chlorine. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1163-1165, 1996. Field measurements of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) concentrations in fish tissues from riverine environments impacted by treated pulp and paper industry effluent in the United States were analyzed. Data from 39 sites in 14 states across the four major U.S. paper-making regions were assembled and analyzed to determine the annual change in lipid-normalized concentrations of TCDD in fish tissue. The results provide strong evidence of a nationwide trend of decreasing lipid-normalized TCDD concentrations in fish tissue, with 84% of the examined sites showing a decrease. While the paucity of data currently limits any conclusions regarding the statistical significance at individual sites, the overall median rate calculated indicates a 0.36 annual fractional decrease in lipid-normalized concentrations of TCDD in fish tissue (0.18 to 0.51, 95% confidence interval) the average annual fractional decrease was 0.35 (0.23 to 0.47, 95% confidence interval). Subdividing fish into benthic and nonbenthic categories resulted in rates which were not significantly different from one another for both the median and mean statistics.
#|Abdelghani, A. A. T., Pramar, Y. V., Mandal, T. K., Tchounwou, P. B., & Heyer, L.  1995.  Levels of Toxicities of Selected Inorganic and Organic Contaminants.  J Environ Sci Health-Pestic Food Contam Agric Wastes vB30, n5, p717(15).  The levels of cadmium, lead, and hexachlorobutadiene in various environmental samples from Devil's swamp, LA, were determined, as well as the toxicities of arsenic, Cd, and Pb to bluegills and crawfish. Results indicated that Cd and Pb were present in almost all type of environmental samples examined. The levels in all fish samples were below the EPA water-quality criteria of 10 and 50 ppb for Cd and Pb, respectively. However, hazardous levels were detected in crawfish and water samples. Hexachlorobutadiene levels ranged from less than 0.01 to 0.48 ppb in water samples and from less than 0.05 to 0.40 ppb in sediment samples. Mercury was found to be the most toxic metal and As the least toxic to bluegills and crawfish, with bluegills the more sensitive species. Mixtures of Cd with As or Hg resulted in a toxic effect that was additive, while the mixture of As and Hg provided a combined toxic effect that was synergistic.
#|Abdel-Hamid Mohammad I; Shaaban-Dessouki Sami A; Skulberg Olav M.  Water quality of the River Nile: III. Toxicity assessment of six industrial effluents polluting the River Nile. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality 8 (3):p239-254 1993.  Six different industrial effluents were chemically and physically characterized. Their toxicity was evaluated using biotests with Selenastrum capricornutum strain NIVA-CHL1. The growth of the test alga showed either inhibition or stimulation. Two of the effluents were highlyn inhibitory with EC-50 values ranging between 1 and 10% (v/v) effluent concentrations. Others showed low growth inhibitory effects (50% lt EC-50 lt 100%). EC-50 values derived from the growth parameters, algal dry weight, cell count, growth rate, and area under the growth curve were almost similar for those two effluents exhibiting highly inhibitory effects. The toxicity values, calculated from algal dry weight and cell count showed, a strong positive linear relationship (r = 0.97 at p lt 0.0001). The potential toxicity of some effluents was partly related to their high content of heavy metals. Changes in mean cell volume of the test alga may be used as an indicator for the potential effects of toxic effluents on the overall cellular activities. The results emphasized the indispensable role of algal bioassays among the basis of relevant and quantitative information about the biological impacts of the investigated effluents on the receiving waters.
#|Adams, S M ; Ham, K D ; Greeley, M S ; LeHew, R F ; Hinton, D E ; Saylor, C F.  Downstream gradients in bioindicator responses: Point source contaminant effects on fish health.  CANADIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES vol. 53, no. 10, pp 2177-2187, 1996.  To investigate potential causal relationships between contaminant exposure and biological responses in fish, a suite of bioindicators ranging from the biochemical to the community-level were measured in fish populations and communities downstream from a bleached kraft mill effluent discharge. Downstream gradients in responses were evident in elevated hepatic mixed-function oxygenase activity, several measures of condition and bioenergetic status, growth, the health assessment index, and several fish community-level parameters. A multivariate discriminant analysis procedure, which included many of the individual bioindicators, also demonstrated a gradient in integrated health status of a sentinel fish species in the contaminated river. These downstream response gradients were probably influenced to a greater degree by contaminant discharges than by natural or anthropogenic nutrient sources downstream.  Establishing causal relationships between a specific contaminant source and responses in sentinel aquatic organisms becomes relatively more straightforward when downstream gradients in biological responses are observed at multiple levels of biological organization.
#|Adjusted streamflow and storage: Columbia River and Coastal Basins, 1928--1989.  Crook (A.G.) Co., Beaverton, OR. Report No.: DOE/BP/21985-5, Jul 93  337p. Order this product from NTIS by: phoneat 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-600 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. The development of irrigation projects since the 1830's and theconstruction of major dams and reservoirs since the early 1900's have altered substantially the natural streamflow regimen of the Columbia River and its tributaries.  As development expanded a multipurpose approach to streamflow regulation evolved to provide flood control, irrigation, hydropower generation, navigation, recreation, water quality enhancement, fish and wildlife, and instream flow maintenance. The responsible agencies use computer programs to determine the effects of various alternative system regulations. This report describes the development of the streamflow data that these computer programs use.
#|Ahle, R C ; Jobsis, G. Development of an index of biotic integrity for the lower Piedmont ecoregion of South Carolina using stream fish communities.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 9, no. 2, p. 50, 1994. Annu. International Symposium of the North American Lake Management Society.  Orlando, FL (USA): Oct 31-Nov 5.  The goal of this research was to develop and test an index of biotic integrity (IBI) using fish communities of nine third-order streams in the Lower Piedmont Ecoregion of South Carolina. Six streams with minor anthropogenic impacts were compared with three streams receiving source and nonpoint source effluents from gold mine operations. The biological integrity ratings for streams receiving gold mine effluent ranged from very poor to marginally fair, whereas the biological integrity ratings for the remaining six streams ranged from fair to very good. The creek selected as the reference stream rated from good to excellent, establishing a baseline for attainable conditions for the ecoregion. The IBI supplied biological data that was useful in identifying perturbations based on alterations occurring in fish communities. The results of this study suggest that the IBI could be an excellent tool for monitoring the biological components of streams in the lower piedmont ecosystem in South Carolina.
#|Ahtiainen,-J.; Nakari,-T.; Silvonen,-J. Toxicity of TCF and ECF pulp bleaching effluents assessed by biological toxicity tests. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 33-40. The toxicity of eighteen different untreated or secondary treated TCF (total chlorine free), ECF (elemental chlorine free) and conventional (Cl sub(2)) bleaching effluents was assessed by a battery of biological tests. The toxicity tests used were: Pseudomonas putida growth inhibition test, Vibrio fisheri luminescence bacteria test, Selenastrum capricornutum algal growth inhibition test, Daphnia magna mobility inhibition (24 h) test and Brachydanio rerio zebra fish hatching and survival test. In the P. putida growth inhibition test only conventional bleaching effluents and ECF birch pulp effluent gave a slightly toxic response. The V. fisheri test was more sensitive. The EC50 values of most untreated ECF and TCF effluents were under 10% effluent concentrations (conventional effluent 15%) and secondary treated effluents were not toxic. All untreated bleaching effluents gave a toxic response in S. capricornutum algal test. EC50 values varied between 12 and 46% effluent concentrations. Treated effluents were not toxic and had a stimulative impact on algal growth. The results obtained by the D. magna test showed that effluents of TCF, ECF (birch pulp) and conventional (pine pulp) bleaching were equally toxic (LC50 values about 40%). Untreated TCF and ECF (pine and mixed pine and birch pulp) like secondary and pilot treated effluents were all nontoxic. The results obtained by the egg/larvae test of zebra fish showed that the lowest effect concentration (LOEC) values differed between hatching and mortality of the larvae. Some effluents were more harmful to hatching while others had a greater effect on mortality. Secondary treated effluents did not have any significant effects. Of the untreated effluents, TCF and conventional (both pine pulp) were the most toxic (LOEC values of hatching between 1 and 3.2% and mortality between 12 and 6.8%). The effects of all the other samples were nearly the same (LOEC values varying between 5 and 25%). There was no significant difference in toxicity between untreated conventional, ECF and TFC bleaching effluents. The natural constituents of wood are probably responsible for the toxicity observed in ECF and TCF effluents.
#|Ali, M M ; Soltan, M E.  The impact of three industrial effluents on submerged aquatic plants in the River Nile, Egypt.  MANAGEMENT AND ECOLOGY OF FRESHWATER PLANTS. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 9TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON AQUATIC WEEDS, EUROPEAN WEED RESEARCH SOCIETY.  Affrey, J M ; Barrett, P R F ; Murphy, K J ; Wade, P M  (eds ).  DEV. HYDROBIOL. no. 120 pp. 77-83, 1996.  Int. Symp. on Aquatic Weeds:(Ireland), 1994.  KLUWER ACADEMIC:  DORDRECHT.  The submerged vegetation growing in the drainage channels taking effluent from three factories (two processing sugar cane plus one producing chipboard or paper pulp and one large fertilizer plant) into the River Nile in Upper Egypt, and in the river itself upstream and downstream of the discharge points, was studied during 1994. The main pollutants from the sugar cane factory effluents comprised organic matter, including carbohydrates from the fertilizer plant ammonia was the principal pollutant. The study investigated the effect of these different pollutants on aquatic plant standing crop and distribution, in relation to physico-chemical characteristics of water and hydrosoil.  In the effluent channels, dominated by large growths of sewage fungus, submerged vegetation was absent, although some emergent vegetation survived. In the most polluted river sites, up to 2 km downstream of discharge points, the flora was restricted to Potamogeton pectinatus L.  Elsewhere in the river, a more diverse submerged flora was present, including Ceratophyllum demersum L. and Potamogeton crispus L.
#|Allen H E, & Hansen D J.  The importance of trace metal speciation to water quality criteria.  Water Environment Research, 68 (1), 1996.  42-54. Because the bioavailability of a trace metal, and consequently its toxicity, is dependent on the physical and chemical form of the metal, we have presented a detailed assessment of how speciation of copper would be expected to affect its toxicity. Principles of chemical speciation are applied to demonstrate that inorganic forms will be in constant proportion to each other and to free copper ion during the course of the titration of a sample of natural water with copper or in the various treatments in a toxicity test conducted at constant pH and alkalinity. Binding of copper to dissolved organic matter or to suspended particulate matter may render the copper nonbioavailable. We have considered a simple complexation model to describe the complexation of copper to soluble ligands. Naturally occurring dissolved organic matter is present at concentrations only slightly greater than that of copper. Consequently, titration of water with copper results in a nonlinear relationship between the concentration of copper present as free copper ion plus inorganic copper species. The effects of stability constant of the complex, concentration of ligand, and the total copper concentration are evaluated. We have related bioavailable copper to the concentration of free copper ion plus inorganic copper complexes, which is valid if the pH and alkalinity of the waters used to develop a criteria are not different. On the basis of limited field data for the complexation of copper in Narragansett Bay water, we do not expect that significant differences in water quality criteria (WQC) would result if the criteria were to be based on free copper ion plus inorganic copper complexes rather than total copper concentrations. We examined the effect of speciation of copper in different waters as related to empirical or theoretically calculated water effect ratios (WER). We show that, on the basis of sound chemical principles, it would be expected that the most sensitive organisms would have the greatest WER. This prediction is confirmed by the empirical observations available. For insensitive organisms, knowledge of the concentration of ligand is sufficient to reasonably predict the WER. However, for the more sensitive organisms that give higher WERs, it is necessary to measure or calculate the speciation of copper to predict the WER. Use of predicted WERs may replace use of empirically derived WERs as is now part of regulatory guidance for derivation of site-specific WQC, if correspondence has been demonstrated.
#|Allen, H.E. 1993. The significance of trace metal speciation for water, sediment, and soil quality standards. Sci. Total Environ. (Suppl.): 23-45.
#|ALLEN-GIL,-SM, GILROY DJ, CURTIS LR.  AN ECOREGION APPROACH TO MERCURY BIOACCUMULATION BY FISH IN RESERVOIRS.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY  28: (1) 61-68 JAN 1995.  Three Oregon reservoirs were evaluated for environmental parameters affecting mercury (Hg) dynamics and bioaccumulation in fish using an ecoregion approach. Ecoregions are distinguished by topography, geology, soil type and composition, and land use patterns. We examined: pH,dissolved oxygen, hardness, conductivity and concentration of Hg ([Hg]) in water; and complexing agent concentrations, organic content, inorganic and organic [Hg] in sediments; and [Hg] in three fish species. [Hg] in water was below detection (0.1 mu g/L) in most water samples from the three reservoirs; in samples above detection, we reasoned that Hg was predominantly in the particulate fraction. Hg in sediment was only found consistently in the inorganic state; organic mercury was below detection (0.2 ng/g) in 83% of sediment samples. Muscle [Hg] in fish over 4 years old was above the FDA limit of 1.0 mu g/g wet weight, and more than 90% of the Hg in all fish was organic mercury. [Hg] in lateral muscle was similar between smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) in Owyhee Reservoir and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) in Cottage Grove Reservoir; rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) from Ochoco Reservoir had significantly lower levels of Hg. It is concluded that, although ecoregion parameters alone do not explain mercury dynamics, they may influence the methylation rate in areas of similar Hg loading rates.
#|Amato JR; Wayment DD; Little EE; Greenberg BM; DeLonay AJ.  Surfactant toxicity identification with a municipal wastewater.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND RISK ASSESSMENT: SEVENTH VOLUME, 1998, V1333, P272-283 (SERIES TITLE: AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS SPECIAL TECHNICAL PUBLICATION).  An acute toxicity identification evaluation following U.S. EPA guidelines was performed with a municipal wastewater to identify effluent components responsible for lethality of larval fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) and Ceriodaphnia dubia. Ammonia toxicity, also present in the effluent, was not the object of this study. The study was designed to characterize effluent toxicity not due to ammonia. To minimize ammonia toxicity interferences, all Phase I testing was performed at pH's where ammonia toxicity would be negligible. Phase I toxicity characterization results indicated surfactants as the class of compounds causing acute non-ammonia toxicity for both test species. A distinct toxicant characteristic, specifically sublation at alkaline pH, was employed to track suspect surfactant loadings in the collection system. Concurrently, effluent surfactant residue testing determined nonionic surfactants were at adequate concentrations and were sufficiently toxic to cause the measured adverse effects. Influent surfactant toxicity was determined to be much less than in the final effluent indicating the treatment process was enhancing surfactant toxicity. Nonionic surfactants known to behave in this manner are nonylphenol ethoxylates. Degradation of nonylphenol ethoxylates to the more toxic degradate nonylphenol (NP) during wastewater treatment explained the increase in toxicity. Major loadings of NPE, particularly NPE9, were determined through both analytical measurements and toxicity tracking to be a regional hospital laundry facility and a tannery.  Substitution of NPE-based detergents to less toxic citrus-based products resulted in dramatic reduction of municipal effluent NPE concentrations and removal, of non-ammonia acute toxicity.
#|American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Design and construction of surface drainage systems on agricultural lands in humid areas. ASAE standards 1998: standards engineering practices data (No. 45): p.812-819, 1998. ANSI/ASAE EP302.4. American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) St Joseph, SA.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 9610 Detection of Fungi.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 9-103:9-110, 19th Edition, 1995. An introduction to fungi discusses their significance (the association between fungal densities and organic loading suggests that fungi may be useful indicators of pollution); occurrence and survival (in potable water, recreational waters, and chlorinated water); and growth patterns and identification.  Three techniques are given for fungi. The pour plate technique is described in Section 9610B.  The spread plate technique (Section 9610C) is an alternative procedure for obtaining quantitative data on colony-forming units. The membrane filter technique (Section 9610D) is presented, but, except for comparisons of different manufacturers' membranes, no critical tests have been reported for membrane filters for fungal isolation efficiency. In addition, techniques are presented for yeast (Section 9610E), zoosporic fungi (Section 9610F), aquatic hyphomycetes (Section 9610G), and fungi pathogenic to humans (Section 9610H).
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8010 Introduction. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-1:8-26, 19th Edition, 1995. Toxicity tests are necessary in water pollution because chemical and physical tests alone are not sufficient to assess potential effectson aquatic biota. The methods given in Part 8000 allow measurement of biological responses to known and unknown concentrations of materials in both fresh and saline waters.  These toxicity tests are applicable to routine monitoring requirements as well as research needs. Section 8010B discussesterminology, including general terms, toxicity terms, biostimulation terms, solution renewal terms, flow terms, and terms used in discussing evaluation of results. Basic requirements for toxicity tests are described in Section 8010C. Guidelines for conducting toxicity tests are given in Section 8010D. Guidelines for preparing organisms for toxicity tests are given in Section 8010E; discussion covers selecting and collecting test organisms; handling, holding, and conditioning test organisms; culturing test organisms, and parasites and disease that may cause unexpected or unexplained mortalities in experimental and control animals.  Section 8010F discusses toxicity test systems, materials, and procedures.  Section 8010G discusses calculating, analyzing, and reporting results of toxicity tests. Section 8010H discusses interpreting and applying results of toxicity tests.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 5510 Aquatic Humic Substances. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 5-27:5-30, 19th Edition, 1995.  Aquatic humic substances (AHS) are heterogeneous, yellow to black, organic materials that include most of the naturally occurring dissolved organic matter in water. Aquatic humic substances have been shown to produce trihalomethanes (THMs) on chlorination and to affect the transport and fate of other organic and inorganic species through partition/adsorption, catalytic, and photolytic reactions. Two methods are given for determination of aquatic humic substances: the diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) method (Section 5510 B) and the XAD method (Section 5510 C). Guidelines for selection of the method are given in Section 5510 A, the introduction.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8710 Microcrustaceans.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-57, 19th Edition, 1995. Microcrustaceans are arthropods that have a very important role in aquatic ecosystems. These planktonic animals harvest smaller organisms and serve as food for many larger animals. The extreme diversity of microcrustaceans requires a complex classification scheme. The freshwater cladoceran, Daphnia, (Section 8711) commonly known as the water flea, is used as a freshwater toxicity test organism.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8211 Duckweed (Proposed).  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-40:8-43, 19th Edition, 1995. Lemna minor L. is a small aquatic macrophyte widely distributed in quiescent freshwater and estuaries ranging from tropical to temperate zones. It is the most common species of the family Lemnaceae (also known as common duckweed) in the United States and many parts of the world. The common duckweed is an ideal organism for assessing aquatic phytotoxicity of many herbicides, industrial wastewaters, and other contaminants. The duckweed toxicity test is useful, especially for assaying the air-water interface where surface-active substances, oil and grease, and toxic organic compounds may be concentrated.  The test also is useful for assessing toxicity of metals, organic compounds, and industrial effluents. It is generally described as a simple, sensitive, and cost-effective test.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 10010 Introduction.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health.  Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 10-1:10-2, 19th Edition, 1995.  Water quality affects the abundance, species composition, stability, productivity, and physiological condition of indigenous populations of aquatic organisms. Therefore, the nature and health of the aquatic communities is an expression of the quality of the water. Biological methods used for assessing water quality include the collection, counting, and identification of aquatic organisms; biomass measurements; measurements of metabolic activity rates; measurements of the toxicity, bioconcentrations, and bioaccumulation of pollutants; and processing and interpretation of biological data. This section defines the communities of aquatic organisms that are considered in Part 10000, including plankton, periphyton, macrophyton, macroinvertebrates, fish, and amphibians.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8910 Fish.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-78:8-90, 19th Edition, 1995.  Fish have been widely regarded as good test species for this assessment of aquatic toxicity.  Section 8910 B discusses fish selection and preparation and Section 8910 C discusses test procedures.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8720 Macrocrustaceans.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-61:8-73, 19th Edition, 1995. Toxicity testing methods for the microcrustaceans are given in Sections 8710 and 8711. Crustaceans are relevant for determining the toxicity of pesticides in the aquatic environment because of their phylogenic relationship to the insects for whose control many pesticides have been developed.  This section contains lengthy discussions on selecting and preparing test species and conducting the toxicity tests.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 1994 Supplement to the 18th Edition: Section 8711 Daphnia.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 47-50, 18th Edition Supplement, 1994.  Daphnia sp. are small freshwater crustaceans. They have been used for many years to assess the acute and chronic effects of single chemicals and complex mixtures.  Daphnia are widely available from many laboratories and commercial biological supply houses. Only 20 to 30 organisms are needed to start a culture. Some biologists prefer D. pulex to D. magna because it is more widely distributed and easier to culture. However, D. magna neonates (first instar) are larger and somewhat easier to use. This method lists the variables for culturing organisms including: water supply; food and feeding; temperature; lighting; culture vessels; air supply; and culture maintenance.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 10200 Plankton.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 10-2:10-29, 19th Edition, 1995. The term "plankton" refers to those microscopic aquatic forms having little or no resistance to currents and living free-floating and suspended in natural waters.  Planktonic plants, "phytoplankton," and planktonic animals, "zooplankton," are covered in this section.  Other organisms occurring in the same environment are dealt with elsewhere: zoosporic fungi in Section 9610F; aquatic hyphomycetes in Section 9610G; and bacteria in Part 9000.  Discussed in this section are sampling collection, including specific instructions for gathering samples; concentration techniques; guidelines for preparing slide mounts for various types of plankton; discussion of various types of microscopes and calibration. Counting techniques are given for phytoplankton (Section 10200F) and zooplankton (Section 10200G).  Five methods for determining chlorophyll are given in Section 10200H.  Various methods of estimating or determining biomass are given in Section 10200I.  Metabolic rate measurements are discussed in Section 10200J.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 10300 Periphyton.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 10-30:10-43, 19th Edition, 1995. Microorganisms growing on stones, sticks, aquatic macrophytes, and other submerged surfaces are useful in assessing the effects of pollutants on lakes, streams, and estuaries. Included in this group of organisms, here designated periphyton, are the zoogleal and filamentous bacteria, attached protozoa, rotifers, and algae, and the free-living microorganisms that swim, creep, or lodge among the attached forms. Sample collection (Section 10300B) involves station selection, sample collection, and preservation. Six methods of sample analysis are given (Section 10300C). Estimating productivity is discussed in Section 10300D. Section 10300E is devoted to interpreting and reporting results.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition: Section 8750 Aquatic Insects.  American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 8-74:8-77, 19th Edition, 1995.  Aquatic insects are important components of lake and stream biota. Many aquatic insects are more sensitive to pollutants than are fish. Procedures using aquatic insects have been developed for determining acceptable environmental conditions or concentrations of toxicants. Most studies have been short-term tests, but the procedures areavailable for long-term tests.  This section discusses selecting and preparing test organisms, toxicity test procedures, and data evaluation.
#|American Water Works Association.  Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th edition: Section 4500-NH3 Nitrogen (Ammonia) American Water Works Association, Denver, CO ; American Public Health Association, Washington, DC ; Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA., p 4-75:4-82, 19th Edition, 1995.  The two major factors that influence selection of the method to determine ammonia are concentration and presence of interferences. In general, direct manual determination of low concentrations of ammonia is confined to drinking waters, clean surface or groundwater, and good-quality nitrified wastewater effluent.  In other instances, and where interferences arepresent and great precision is necessary, a preliminary distillation step is required.  This distillation step is described.  For high ammonia concentrations a distillation and titration technique is preferred. Following the distillation step, a number of methods are described, including:  a titrimetric method, an ammonia-selective electrode method, an ammonia-selective electrode method using known addition, a phenate method, and an automated version of the phenate method. Interferences, storage of samples, a brief discussion of the advantages of each method precede the detailed instructions for distillation and each standard method.
#|Anderholm,-S.K.; Radell,-M.J.; Richey,-S.F.  Water-quality assessment of the Rio Grande Valley study unit, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas analysis of selected nutrient, suspended-sediment, and pesticide data. 1994. 203 pp. Water Resources Investigations Report: 94-4061. Surface- and ground-water quality data for selected nutrients, suspended sediment, and pesticides in the Rio Grande Valley study unit, which includes 47,500 square miles in Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas, are summarized and presented in graphical and tabular formats. Land use is primarily in four categories: rangeland (58 percent), forest land (36 percent), agricultural land (4 percent), and urban (1 percent). Major uses of water are irrigation, public supply, and industrial. Data from surface-water stations on the Rio Grande show that nutrient concentrations are affected by urban impacts and interspersed agriculture along the river, as evidenced by generally larger concentrations downstream from Albuquerque, New Mexico. Suspended-sediment concentrations in the Rio Grande are affected by the inflow of perennial tributaries, the flushing of ephemeral streams and arroyos, steep gradients in various reaches of the river, and settling in reservoirs. Nitrate concentrations in water from wells in all areas rarely exceeded 10 milligrams per liter and most were less than 2 milligrams per liter. Comparison of nitrate concentrations among all land uses and well depths indicates that the largest median nitrate concentration is associated with rangeland and shallow depths. Orthophosphate concentrations in water from most wells sampled are less than 0.2 milligram per liter and ammonia concentrations are less than 0.03 milligram per liter, indicating that orthophosphate and ammonia concentrations are not a major problem in the study area. Diazinon, an organophosphorus insecticide, was the most frequently detected pesticide in surface water and the only pesticide detected in ground water. About 98 percent of the pesticide analyses of surface water were below the analytical detection limit.
#|Anderson, B S ; Hunt, J W ; McNulty, H R ; Turpen, S L ; Martin, M.  Off-season spawning and factors influencing toxicity test development with topsmelt Atherinops affinis. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 479-485, 1994.  Three separate groups of adult topsmelt (Atherinops affinis) were spawned in rotation in laboratory culture over a two-year period to provide larvae for toxicity tests. Size and viability of embryos and larvae produced during the normal summer spawning period (May-August) were compared to those produced during the off season (October-April). Mean embryo viability was relatively high throughout the study (82%), whereas size of larvae varied. Larval size was significantly larger during the summer spawning period than in winter. A 7-d growth and survival toxicity test protocol was developed for topsmelt larvae.  Variability of the protocol was assessed over a 12-month period using copper chloride as a reference toxicant. Precision of 12 toxicity tests using copper was high the intralaboratory C.V. for copper LC50s was 19%. The 7-d larval protocol also gave comparable results in two interlaboratory toxicity tests using copper and complex effluent. This study demonstrates that topsmelt may be spawned throughout the year to provide larvae for toxicity tests and that topsmelt larvae have comparable sensitivity to other larval fishes commonly used in toxicity testing.
#|Andren AW; Bober TW.  Argentum International Conference Proceedings (1st): Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Held in Madison, Wisconsin on August 8-10, 1993.  Metal Speciation in Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems; Environmental Cycling of Silver; Toxicity of Metals to Aquatic Organisms; Food Chain Transfer of Metals in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment; Environmental Analytical Chemistry of Silver; Panel Discussion; Poster Session; and Participants. Technical rept.
#|Andren AW; Bober TW.  Argentum International Conference Proceedings (2nd): Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Held in Madison, Wisconsin on September 11-14, 1994.  Metal Speciation in Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems; Environmental Cycling of Silver; Toxicity of Metals to Aquatic Organisms; Food Chain Transfer of Metals in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment; Environmental Analytical Chemistry of Silver; Panel Discussion; Poster Session; and Participants. Technical rept.
#|Andren AW; Bober TW.  Argentum International Conference Proceedings (3rd): Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment. Held in Washington, DC. on August 6-9, 1995.  Argentum III; Behavior of Silver in the Water Column; Environmental Cycling, Distribution, and Analytical Chemistry; Behavior of Silver in Sediments; Poster Session; and Participants.
#|Andren, A W ; Bober, TW.  The 4th international conference proceedings: Transport, fate and effects of silver in the environment.  Wisconsin Univ., Madison (USA). REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001. 256 pp, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  In the five years since the Argentum conferences were first conceived, great strides have been made in our collective worldwide understanding of silver behavior. Some past laboratory studies had been faulted because they were designed without considering all the variables that truly influence the metal's behavior in nature. When attempts were made to extrapolate results from such laboratory simulations to the more complex natural environment, often the data did not seem to fit with actual tests and measurements made in the field.  Of particular benefit has been the gathering together of scientists from various disciplines who can critique each other's project proposals and date from their own viewpoint, thus bringing valuable cross-disciplinary insight to efforts that otherwise might have been conducted strictly within the confines of a single discipline. This wholistic approach produces better experimental designs that yield more universally acceptable information, often at lower cost and without need to engage in peripheral supporting studies. It has helped eliminate the confusion that resulted from past conflicting data on silver, which made it difficult to adopt reasonable environmental standards. The advent of the new "clean" sampling and monitoring procedures has also greatly revised past thinking regarding ambient concentrations of trace metals in the environment. These successes over the past few years have resulted in better and more reasonable dialogue between researchers, regulators and the regulated community. We hope to continue that process through this fourth conference.
#|ANTLE JA; FINCH RA; BURTON DT; FORT DJ; DAWSON DA; LINDER G; RAYBURN JR; HULL M; KUMSHERKING M; GAUDETHULL AM; TURLEY SD.  FETAX INTERLABORATORY VALIDATION-STUDY - PHASE-III, PART 1 TESTING.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED TOXICOLOGY, 1996, V16, N6 (NOV-DEC), P517-528.  The Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX) is a 96-h whole embryo developmental toxicity screening assay that can be used in ecotoxicology and in detecting mammalian developmental toxicants when an in vitro metabolic activation system is employed, A standardized American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) guide for the conduct of FETAX has been published, along with a companion atlas that aids in embryo staging and identifying malformations, As part of the ASTM process, a three-phase interlaboratory validation study was undertaken to evaluate the repeatability and reliability of FETAX, Seven different participants collaborated in the study, In Phase I, FETAX proved to be more repeatable and reliable than many bioassays, However, some excessive variation was observed in a few laboratories, An initial lack of assay experience by some technicians caused variation, Phase II showed far less intra- and interlaboratory variability than Phase I, Non-teratogens showed the most consistent results, while more variability was observed for the two teratogens tested, Interlaboratory coefficient of variation values for all endpoints ranged from 7.3 to 54.7, Phase III-Part 1, using coded samples and test concentration ranges selected by each laboratory, showed results similar to Phase I, Analysis of the causes of variation suggested that some technicians judged some embryos to be malformed while others consistently judged similar embryos as normal, Concentration ranges tested by some of the laboratories varied greatly and a new protocol for selecting concentrations for initial testing was written to reduce variation from this source, Testing to date suggests that FETAX is as repeatable and reliable as other standard bioassays.
#|Apodaca,-L.E.; Driver,-N.E.; Stephens,-V.C.; Spahr,-N.E.  Environmental setting and implications on water quality, Upper Colorado River Basin, Colorado and Utah. 33 pp.  Water-Resources Investigations Report: 95-4263. The Upper Colorado River Basin in Colorado and Utah is 1 of 60 study units selected for water-quality assessment as part of the U,S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment program, which began full implementation in 1991. Understanding the environmental setting of the Upper Colorado River Basin study unit is important in evaluating water-quality issues in the basin. Natural and human factors that affect water quality in the basin are presented, including an overview of the physiography, climatic conditions, general geology and soils, ecoregions, population, land use, water management and use, hydrologic characteristics, and, to the extent possible, aquatic biology. These factors have substantial implications on water-quality conditions in the basin. For example, high concentrations of dissolved solids and selenium are present in the natural background water conditions of surface and ground water in parts of the basin. In addition, mining, urban, and agricultural land and water uses result in the presence of certain constituents in the surface and ground water of the basin that can detrimentally affect water quality. The environmental setting of the study unit provides a framework of the basin characteristics, which is important in the design of integrated studies of surface water, ground water, and biology.
#|Approved and working criteria for water quality.  1995.  British Columbia.  Water Quality Branch, Victoria.  50p.The British Columbia Water Quality Branch is developing province-wide water quality criteria for use in assessing water quality data and preparing site-specific water quality objectives. These criteria are being developed substance by substance, beginning with those most urgently needed for water quality assessments and objectives. The tables comprising this report contain both working criteria awaiting approval and criteria approved by BC Environment. Substances covered by the criteria include particulates, nutrients, cyanide, nitrogen, metals, bacteria, chlorine, fluoride, ammonia in saltwater, and organic compounds, such as chlorophenols and polychlorinated biphenyls.
#|Arnett, M. W.; Karapatakis, L. K.; Mamatey, A. R.  Savannah River Site environmental report for 1993.  Westinghouse Savannah River, Aiken, SC, United States, 1994, 276 p. REPORT NO.: WSRC-TR-94-075.  Savannah River Site (SRS) conducts effluent monitoring and environmental surveillance to ensure the safety of the public and the well-being of the environment. DOE Order 5400,1, "General Environmental Protection Program", requires the submission of an environmental report that documents the impact of facility operations on the environment and on public health. SRS has had an extensive environmental surveillance program in place since 1951 (before site startup). At that time, data generated by the on-site surveillance program were reported in site documents. Beginning in 1959, data from off-site environmental monitoring activities were presented in reports issued for public dissemination.  Separate reporting of SRS's on- and off-site environmental monitoring activities continued until 1985, when data from both surveillance programs were merged into a single public document. The Savannah River Site Environmental Report for 1993 is an overview of effluent monitoring and environmental surveillance activities conducted on and in the vicinity of SRS from January 1 through December 31, 1993. For complete program descriptions, consult the "SRS Environmental Monitoring Plan" (WSRC-3Ql-2-1000). It documents the rationale and design criteria for the monitoring program, the frequency of monitoring and analysis, the specific analytical and sampling procedures, and the quality assurance requirements.
#|Assmuth, T. W., & Penttila, S. V.  1995.  Characteristics, Determinants and Interpretations of Acute Lethality.  Aquat Toxicol v31, n2, p125(17).  At 35 old and active municipal and industrial mixed-waste disposal sites in Finland, leachates were collected, and acute lethality was determined using Daphnia magna. Both 24-h screening tests and 48-h standard tests were used. Of the 343 tested leachate samples, 33% were at least slightly toxic in the screening tests. In 48-h tests using the samples found to cause lethality, the range of median survival times ranged 0.35-111 h. There were significant correlations between toxicity measures and chemical water-quality criteria, particularly for chlorides, ammonia, and light metals. Screening-test lethality correlated more strongly with the chemical criteria than did the standard-test lethality.
#|Atencio, B.P.  Department of Energy, Richland, WA. Richland Operations Office.  State Waste Discharge Permit application: 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit. Contract Number: DOE-RL-94-25.  NTIS/DE94015379, 129p.  As part of the Hanford Federal Facility Agreement and Consent Order negotiations, the US Department and Energy, Richland Operations Office, the US Environmental Protection Agency, and the Washington State Department of Ecology agreed that liquid effluent discharges to the ground on the Hanford Site which affect groundwater or have the potential to affect groundwater would be subject to permitting under the structure of Chapter 173-216 (or 173-218 where applicable) of the Washington Administrative Code, the State Waste Discharge Permit Program. This document constitutes the State Waste Discharge Permit application for the 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit. The 200-E Powerhouse Ash Waste Water discharges to the 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit via dedicated pipelines. The 200-E Ash Waste Water is the only discharge to the 200-E Powerhouse Ash Pit.  The 200-E Powerhouse is a steam generation facility consisting of a coal-handling and preparation section and boilers.
#|Atere-Roberts, S.O.; Koon, J.H.  Meetingself-monitoring requirements for stormwater discharges from industrial facilities.  IND. WASTEWATER  VOL. 1, NO. 1, pp. 38-50, 1993. EPA on Sept 9 and Sept. 25, 1992, issued final regulations governing general NPDES permits for stormwater discharge associated with industrial activities in non-delegated states and territories.  As part of these requirements, certain facilities must monitor their stormwater discharges annually or semiannually, depending on their industrial category, and report the results regularly to EPA or the appropriate state agency.  Specifically, the self-monitoring requirements call for facilities to collect two types of samples during a storm that produces more than 0.1inches of precipitation and that occurs at least 72 hours after the previous measurable storm.
#|Ayoub George M; Koopman Ben; Bitton Gabriel(a); Riedesel Kelly.  Heavy metal detoxification by trimercapto-s-triazine (TMT) as evaluated by a bacterial enzyme assay.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 14 (2):p193-196 1995.  We compared trimercapto-s-triazine (TMT) to ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) for detoxification of five selected heavy metals as part of an effluent fractionation procedure. Toxicity was assessed using a microbial microplate assay, based on the MetPAD test kit. The affinity of TMT to four of the metals (Cd, Cu, Hg, Ph) was on the same order of magnitude as EDTA, as indicated by minimum mole ratios of ligand to metal required for detoxification. The TMT was ineffective against Zn. Both TMT and EDTA were toxic (causing more than 30% inhibition) to the test bacterial enzyme at concentrations of 3,000 mu-M or greater. The range of TMT concentrations that detoxified the metals was broader than that of EDTA. Stimulation of enzyme activity by EDTA could complicate interpretation of test data, a problem not shared by TMT.
#|BAILEY HC, DIGIORGIO C, KROLL K, MILLER JL, HINTON DE, & STARRETT G. (1996). DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURES FOR IDENTIFYING PESTICIDE TOXICITY IN AMBIENT WATERS - CARBOFURAN, DIAZINON, CHLORPYRIFOS.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, V15, N6, P837-845. The responses of carbofuran, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos to standard acute toxicity identification evaluation (TlE) procedures were characterized. The test species was Ceriodaphnia dubia. The TIE procedures included solid-phase extraction, recovery in methanol eluates, hydrolysis under acid and base conditions, and retention in specific methanol/water fractions. In addition, the effect of the metabolic inhibitor, piperonyl butoxide, on the toxicity of each of the pesticides was determined. Diazinon degraded quickly under acid conditions, whereas carbofuran degraded under base conditions. In both cases, concentrations were reduced to nontoxic levels within 6 h. Conversely, acidic or basic conditions were not effective in reducing the concentration of chlorpyrifos over the same time period. Solid- phase extraction removed at: least 95% of diazinon and carbofuran from solution, but was less effective with chlorpyrifos. All three pesticides eluted separately in characteristic methanol/water fractions. Piperonyl butoxide ameliorated the toxicity of diazinon and chlorpyrifos, but not carbofuran. Up to 1.5% methanol did not interfere with the protective action of piperonyl butoxide. Case studies in which these techniques were applied to ambient water samples are also described.
#|Bailey, B. Surviving the stormwater permit process.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 5, no. 7, pp. 70-77, 1993. Since EPA published regulations for stormwater discharge permits, industrial facilities and municipalities have had to consider new and timely methods for compliance. In essence, the regulations require both industries and municipalities to develop stormwater controls similar to those currently required for point source discharges, solids, and process wastewater discharges. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit applicants must submit a detailed stormwater pollution prevention plan.
#|Bailey, H C ; Miller, J L ; Miller, M J ; Dhaliwal, B S.  Application of toxicity identification procedures to the echinoderm fertilization assay to identify toxicity in a municipal effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 12, pp. 2181-2186, 1995.  Toxicity was detected in a municipal effluent with the echinoderm fertilization assay. Dendraster excentricus appeared more sensitive to the effluent than did Strongylocentrotus purpuratus.  A Phase 1 toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) was conducted using procedures adapted to the echinoderm fertilization bioassay. The Phase 1 TIE implicated cationic metal as the cause of toxicity, and follow-up investigations suggested that copper was the primary cation responsible. As part of the TIE, bioassay were conducted on ammonia and several cations. No-observable-effect concentrations for D. excentricus were >13.4  mu g/L (Ag), >9.4  mu g/L (Cd), 3.8 to 13.1  mu g/L (Cu), >0.7  mu g/L (Hg), 10 mg/L (N, as total ammonia). The data also suggested that interspecific differences in sensitivity to copper and ammonia exist between Dendraster excentricus and Strongylocentrotus purpuratus.
#|Bailey,-H.C.; Young,-L.  A comparison of the results of freshwater aquatic toxicity testing of pulp and paper mill effluents. FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATER V. SELECTED PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH IAWQ INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATERS, HELD IN VANCOUVER, BC, CANADA, 10-13 JUNE 1996. Hall,-E.R.; Colodey,-A.G. (eds.)  1997 pp. 305-313.  Freshwater short-term chronic toxicity tests were conducted quarterly on samples from pulp and paper mills under Cycle I of Canada's Environmental Effects Monitoring program. The toxicity tests included the 7-day Ceriodaphnia dubia partial life-cycle test for survival and reproduction, the 7-day rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) embryo viability test, and the 72-hr Selenastrum capricornutum algal growth inhibition test. All three tests were performed on a routine basis with few failures. The responses of the different species were generally not correlated, suggesting that they responded to different constituents in the effluents. On a statistical basis, the algal test exhibited the greatest sensitivity, followed by the trout embryo and Ceriodaphnia tests. In general, the no-observable effect concentrations (NOECs) were lower than the corresponding IC25 estimates. Due to variability between samples from each mill, it was not possible to distinguish between different mill production processes with respect to their effect on toxicity. In general, mills that treated their effluent using aerated stabilization basins exhibited less toxicity than other treatment types. However, this observation is preliminary and also affected by variability in test results and limited sample size. Overall, the results suggest that toxicity tests have a useful role in identifying toxicity in these effluents and that Toxicity Identification Evaluations should be conducted to identify the cause of toxicity so that treatment and/or source control can be initiated as appropriate.
#|Baillieul,-M.; Bervoets,-L.; Blust,-R.; De-Boeck,-G. Assessment of the toxicity of an industrial effluent with a two-generation reproduction test using Daphnia magna. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof,-W.; de-Kruijf,-H. (eds.)  1993 pp. 1159-1164. The toxicity of an industrial effluent and solutions of its main component, CaCl sub(2) was assessed with acute and chronic toxicity tests with Daphnia magna. EC sub(50) values were not different until after 96 h when the effluent proved more toxic than the pure CaCl sub(2). In the first generation of the chronic tests, reproduction was decreased at the same threshold chloride concentration for both the pure CaCl sub(2) and the effluent. In the second generation, reproduction returned to control levels in all tested CaCl sub(2) concentrations. The effluent, however, decreased the reproduction even at a dilution corresponding to one-tenth of the 96-h EC sub(50), a dilution at which all effluent components are within European water quality standards. This difference in chronic toxicity between the effluent and the CaCl sub(2) solutions could not have been foreseen with 48 h acute tests or one-generation reproduction tests, which are the standard ecotoxicological testing procedures.
#|BALK F; OKKERMAN PC; VANHELMOND CAM; NOPPERT F; VANDERPUTTE I.  BIOLOGICAL EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS FOR SURFACE WATER AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1994, V29, N3, P211-213.  Within the framework of the International Rhine Action Programme and the EC ACE-Programme in the field of the environment (regulation EC.224/87) the sensitivity and reliability of biological early warning systems are being tested. The effectiveness of these systems for continuous water quality monitoring is being assessed, using surface water and industrial effluents. The systems tested are a fish and a waterflea early warning system. From the results it is concluded that both types of biological early warning systems in combination with physico-chemical monitoring increase the effectiveness of monitoring pollution levels in surface water. Fish early warning systems can be important tools in reducing water pollution by industries.
#|Balthis, W. L., Voit, E. O., & Meaburn, G. M. Setting prediction limits for mercury concentrations in fish having high bioaccumulation potential.  ENVIRONMETRICS,1996 vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 429-439. The potential health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated fish have long been recognized by public health officials as cause for concern, and in the USA many states have developed strategies for issuing fish consumption advisories. The methods and criteria for establishing such advisories vary widely among the states, however, and the advice given to anglers may not be consistent between neighbouring states, even regarding the same body of water. Fish contaminant monitoring data are often used as the basis for advisories, but few methods are available for the quantification and distributional characterization of contaminant levels in fish. Log-normality of pollutant concentrations (i.e. normality of the logarithm of pollutant concentrations) is a common assumption, yet statistical tests of normality do not always confirm this assumption. An alternative to the log-normal distribution is the S-distribution, which has been shown to approximate many statistical distributions with high accuracy, and often results in improved fit over the log-normal. In this paper we evaluate the performance of the S-distribution in characterizing contaminant concentrations, and compare the results to those obtained using the log-normal distribution. A method based on trends in mercury distribution parameters across length classes is presented and used to obtain 95 per-cent prediction limits for mercury concentrations in king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla). It is shown that this method gives narrower prediction limits compared to those obtained using standard regression techniques.
#|Bankey, L A ; Van Veld, P A ; Borton, D L ; LaFleur, L ; Stegeman, J J.  Responses of cytochrome P4501A in freshwater fish exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent in experimental stream channels.  CANADIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES vol. 52, no. 3, pp., 439-447, 1995.  Cytochrome P4501A induction was used to evaluate exposure of fish to bleached kraft mill effluent in experimental stream channels.  Immunodetectable P4501A and associated ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity were elevated in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) throughout 263 days of exposure to 8% and 4% effluent from a mill that used 70% chlorine dioxide substitution for chlorine in the pulp bleaching process. In largemouth bass, P4501A was elevated as high as 55-fold over control fish. Large temporal and species variations were observed in enzyme levels and activity. Levels of chlorinated organic compounds present in effluent also varied throughout exposures. However, there was no apparent relationship between P4501A and any of those compounds measured. P4501A and EROD in channel catfish declined to control levels within seven days after transfer of fish to clean water or after terminating introduction of effluent into the channels. In another exposure, induction was observed in largemouth bass at 4 and 12% effluent after the mill began using oxygen in the delignification process and 100% substitution of chlorine dioxide for chlorine.
#|BANTLE JA, FINCH RA, BURTON DT, FORT DJ, DAWSON DA, LINDER G, RAYBURN JR, HULL M, KUMSHERKING M, GAUDETHULL AM, & TURLEY SD. (1996).  FETAX INTERLABORATORY VALIDATION-STUDY - PHASE-III, PART 1 TESTING.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED TOXICOLOGY, V16, N6, P517-528. The Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay-Xenopus (FETAX) is a 96-h whole embryo developmental toxicity screening assay that can be used in ecotoxicology and in detecting mammalian developmental toxicants when an in vitro metabolic activation system is employed, A standardized American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) guide for the conduct of FETAX has been published, along with a companion atlas that aids in embryo staging and identifying malformations, As part of the ASTM process, a three-phase interlaboratory validation study was undertaken to evaluate the repeatability and reliability of FETAX, Seven different participants collaborated in the study, In Phase I, FETAX proved to be more repeatable and reliable than many bioassays, However, some excessive variation was observed in a few laboratories, An initial lack of assay experience by some technicians caused variation, Phase II showed far less intra- and interlaboratory variability than Phase I, Non-teratogens showed the most consistent results, while more variability was observed for the two teratogens tested, Interlaboratory coefficient of variation values for all endpoints ranged from 7.3 to 54.7, Phase III-Part 1, using coded samples and test concentration ranges selected by each laboratory, showed results similar to Phase I, Analysis of the causes of variation suggested that some technicians judged some embryos to be malformed while others consistently judged similar embryos as normal, Concentration ranges tested by some of the laboratories varied greatly and a new protocol for selecting concentrations for initial testing was written to reduce variation from this source, Testing to date suggests that FETAX is as repeatable and reliable as other standard bioassays.
#|Barbour MT, Gerritsen J, Griffith GE, Frydenborg R, McCarron E, White JS, Bastian ML A.  A framework for biological criteria for Florida streams using benthic macroinvertebrates. JOURNAL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN BENTHOLOGICAL SOCIETY 15: (2) 185-211 JUN 1996.  Our study developed an approach to biological assessment that would document effects of pollution on benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in Florida streams. The primary objectives were: (1) to classify streams for assessment of benthic assemblages and (2) to develop biological metrics and aggregated indices for biocriteria and assessment. Reference sites were selectedthroughout Florida (with the exception of the southernmost area, known as the Southern Florida Coastal Plain ecoregion) and sampled by biologists from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection.These sites were sampled during a summer index period (1 July through 30 September) from 1992 through 1994. Streams were classified using invertebrate species composition. Three geographic stream classes (bioregions) that were based on aggregations of subecoregions were determined from this analysis: the panhandle, peninsular Florida, and the northeastern portion of Florida. Stream types based on water source (i.e., calcareous or non-calcareous) were not useful as stream classes. From an initial suite of 32 macroinvertebrate metrics, 8 metrics were useful in composing the Stream Condition Index (SCI) for Florida for all 3 bioregions. Scores (5, 3, or 1) were developed for these metrics to allow for aggregation into an index. Aggregating the metrics into the SCT provided a biocriterion that improved discrimination between impaired and unimpaired sites over use of individual metrics.
#|BARBOUR MT.  EXPERIMENTAL-DESIGN AND CONTROL - KEYS TO REFINING RAPID BIOASSESSMENT METRICS - REPLY.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY  12: (1) 2-4 JAN 1993.
#|Barbour-MT; Plafkin-JL; Bradley-BP; Graves-CG; Wisseman-RW.  Evaluation of EPA's rapid bioassessment benthic metrics: metric redundancy and variability among reference stream sites. Environmental-Toxicology-and-Chemistry. 1992, 11: 4, 437-449.  The data analysis scheme used in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) rapid bioassessment protocols (RBPs) integrates several community, population and functional parameters (or metrics) into a single assessment of biological condition. A reference data base of macroinvertebrate data obtained from 10 ecoregions in Oregon, Colorado and Kentucky, USA, was used to evaluate the appropriateness and variability of the benthic metrics and the similarities of results among ecoregions. Several statistical procedures, including principal component analysis, correlation coefficient, analysis of variance and stepwise discriminant analysis, were used to test the efficacy of 17 community metrics. A general separation between the mountain ecoregions and the valley/plains ecoregions was determined to exist for the metrics. 2 of the original 8 metrics described in the EPA's RBPs for benthic macroinvertebrates were found to be highly variable and unreliable as measures of biological conditions in some ecoregions. 11 metrics were determined as being valuable in discriminating between montane and valley/plains groupings of ecoregions.
#|Barron, M G ; Nardo, C ; Yurk, J J. Bioavailability of PCBs in channel catfish exposed to a treated municipal effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 557-560, 1996.  This study evaluated the use of fish to assess the bioavailability of waste water discharges of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which were below the analytical detection limit in water. PCBs were quantified in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) exposed under controlled conditions to a treated municipal effluent and Detroit River (Michigan, U.S.A.) water for 28 days. PCBs were bioaccumulated in channel catfish exposed to effluent (16.4 to 16.7 mu g/ Kappa g), but not in fish exposed to Detroit River water. The results indicate that channel catfish can be used to assess the bioavailability of PCBs in waste water discharges.
#|Barros, M. C., Mendo, M. J. M., & Negrao, F. C. R.  1995.  Surface Water Quality in Portugal During a Drought Period.  Sci Total Environ v171, n1-3, p69(8). The Water Quality Network in Portugal was used to assess surface water quality during a drought period. A total of 42 sampling stations were selected, which were most representative of the major river basins in the country. Results are presented from the study of the possible influence of very low stored volumes in 14 of the selected reservoirs. The parameters analyzed were temperature, pH, conductivity, total suspended solids, DO, COD, BOD, ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, and fecal coliforms. Results indicated that was quality was good to fair in the reservoirs from the north and in those from the south where important point sources did not exist. Statistical analysis did not highlight any significant relationships between concentrations and time or storage volume.
#|Barton, B A ; Taylor, B R.  Oxygen requirements of fishes in northern Alberta rivers with a general review of the adverse effects of low dissolved oxygen.  WATER QUAL. RES. J. CANADA vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 361-409, 1996.  Sublethal responses of fish to low dissolved oxygen (DO) include changes in cardiac function, increased respiratory and metabolic activity, alterations in blood chemistry, mobilization of anaerobic energy pathways, upset in acid-base balance, reduced growth and decreased swimming capacity. Lowered final temperature preferenda and avoiding low DO are behavioral responses, and under extreme conditions, fish may take advantage of oxygen-rich surface film water. Low DO can affect invertebrate communities by causing selective mortality or inducing drift, which may affect fish production. The presence of pollutants can exacerbate responses to low DO with the effect of raising the threshold DO at which such responses occur. Based on published literature, northern Alberta riverine fishes are grouped into four categories of acute lethal sensitivity. However, chronic DO requirements are far more important to long-term maintenance of healthy fish communities than acute tolerances. Defining chronic DO criteria for northern fishes is complicated by long periods of winter ice cover, possible presence of pulp mill effluent, and lack of information on many regional species. Although previously recommended criteria should provide a reasonable level of protection for fish, any reduction in DO below saturation will cause some production impairment within the aquatic community.(DBO)
#|Bass,-J.A.B.; Pinder,-L.C.V.; Leach,-D.V. Temporal and spatial variation in zooplankton populations in the River Great Ouse: An ephemeral food resource for larval and juvenile fish. REGUL.-RIVERS-RES.-MANAGE. 1997  vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 245-258.  The spatial and temporal dynamics of zooplankton populations were investigated in a highly engineered and regulated section of the River Great Ouse from 1989 to 1993. In addition to main river sites some secondary channels (back channels) and a marina were also included in the study. At main river sites Rotifera were strongly dominant, with peak numbers of 2000 1 super(-1) to more than 18000 1 super(-1), corresponding closely with spring and early summer maximum concentrations of chlorophyll a. Copepoda (mostly nauplii) were recorded at consistently lower densities (maxima, 20-125 1 super(-1)) whereas Cladocera were rarely recorded and never exceed 10 l super(-1). Most Cladocera belonged to species generally associated with macrophytes rather than truly planktonic species. The situation in main river and back channel situations contrasted markedly with that found in marinas, where densities of Rotifera, although extremely variable spatially, were generally higher than those in the adjacent main river. Copepoda and Cladocera were also much more abundant than at the river sites with taxa such as Bosmina and other typically planktonic taxa predominant. As rotifers are the main food for newly hatched cyprinids, spatial and temporal variation in their abundance relative to the spawning locations and hatching times of cypinid eggs may have important consequences for the growth and survival of young fish.
#|Battegazzore, M., & Renoldi, M. C.  1995.  Integrated Chemical and Biological Evaluation.  Water Air Soil Pollut v83, n3-4, p375(16). The Lambro River is considered to be one of the most polluted rivers in Italy. Three sampling sites were established on the Lambro River and one was established along the main tributary, the Lambro Meridionale River. Hydrochemical parameters were determined for the water samples, and macroinvertebrates were analyzed. Water-quality indices and multivariate analyses were used to explain the distribution of the main taxa on the basis of the analyzed parameters. Values of ammonia, DO, and conductivity were indicative of a degraded river in terms of water quality. Copper and chromium concentrations reached relatively high values at all sites except one. The least-polluted station was located upstream of Milan. Conductivity and DO were found to be important factors regulating the colonization of aquatic invertebrates. Multivariate analysis of the combined taxa and physicochemical parameters for both sampling dates of the study gave a complete picture of the relative importance of the parameters as possible agents on the community structures.
#|Bayes, C D.  The consent contract for effluent discharges.  J. INST. WATER ENVIRON. MANAGE. vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 417-424.  1994.  The consent for the discharge of effluent is a contract between the discharger and the regulator. Its purpose is reviewed and compared with effluent performance characteristics. The evolvement of consent conditions and compliance assessment in Scotland is described, together with the challenge posed by the need to implement the urban waste water treatment Directive. A new framework for the consent contract is proposed for sewage and industrial discharges, which clearly prescribes the required effluent performance, authorizes non-compliance, and embodies an explicit assessment of compliance.
#|Bazzanti, M.; Seminara, M.; Baldoni, S.  Chironomids (Diptera: Chironomidae) from three temporary ponds of different wet phase duration in central Italy.  Journal of Freshwater Ecology  vol. 12 (1):  p.89-99, 1997.  A one-year-study (during 1989-90) on 3 temporary ponds in central Italy examined the relationships between the composition and structure of chironomid communities and some environmental variables.  The 3 ponds showed differences in wet phase duration, dissolved oxygen content, and sediment organic matter. In the pond with longer aquatic phase and lower oxygen content a dominance of Chironominae (mainly Chironomus thummi (C. riparius) and C. plumosus) and Tanypodinae (mainly Psectrotanypus varius) was recorded, whereas in the pool with shorter habitat duration and higher oxygen content, Orthocladiinae (mainly Psectrocladius/Allopsectrocladius spp. and Cricotopus sylvestris) were dominant.  The pond with an intermediate wet phase length showed some characteristics common to the other 2 ponds.  The preferences of chironomids for ponds of different habitat duration can probably be ascribed to their larval size and strategies to survive in ephemeral waters. A more detailed analysis of chironomids of the pond with a longer wet phase showed the existence of 3 major phases of pond life (filling, intermediate and drying phases), according to the seasonal variations and the physicochemical conditions.
#|BC Environment. Environmental Protection Dept.  B.C.'s pulp mills: Effluent status report -- 1994 update. BC Environment. Environmental Protection Dept., Victoria (British Columbia). 1995. 14p. Of the 26 pulp and paper mills operating in British Columbia, 23 discharge effluents directly into the environment. Provincial regulations set maximum discharge levels for contaminants in these effluents. This report summarizes actions taken by provincial and federal governments and the pulp mills to comply with those regulations, and assesses the environmental benefits of those actions. The report updates a January 1994 report and includes those actions and results which occurred from October 1, 1993 to December 31, 1994. Data are included on effluent discharges, effluent toxicity, contaminant discharges per unit of pulp production, discharges of dioxins and furans, and changes to fisheries closures.
#|BECKER, MIMI; L. LARSEN.  IMPLEMENTING A BINATIONAL ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN THE GREAT LAKES BASIN: WILL THE REMEDIAL ACTION POLICY PROCESS SUCCEED IN RESTORING THE AREAS OF CONCERN? (TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS).  PH.D., 1996.  The purpose of this study was to determine whether an "ecosystem approach" to rehabilitate, maintain and protect the Great Lakes Basin transboundary resource system, including its ability to sustain multiple human uses over time is likely to succeed in a complex policy environment.The study highlights the most severely stressed level of the ecological system, where conventional environmental management initiatives have failed: the 43 designated Areas of Concern (AOC). It evaluates the Remedial Action policy process which has been underway in the Basin since 1987, and examines its potential to implement an ecosystem approach through a strategic Remedial Action Planning (RAP) process which is intended to succeed in restoring the functional integrity and enumerated impaired"beneficial uses" in the Areas of Concern. The study hypothesis assumed that the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement's RAP process being implemented in the AOC is likely to be successful because it has taken an ecosystem approach to rehabilitate, redevelop and protect the Great Lakes System and assumed that the degree of success in restoring functional integrity in a given AOC depends upon the extent to which the RAP process in that AOC has incorporated ecosystem approach criteria. Six of 43 AOC were selected for case studies. Data was obtained from site visits, personal interviews, primary documents, direct observation, and surveys of RAP participants. An Ecosystem Approach Remedial Action Policy Process Implementation Evaluation Framework (EA-RAPPIEF) was developed to serve as a model and working hypothesis against which to examine the results of the RAP process to determine the extent to which each was successful and why. RAPs were behind projected deadlines: progress was slower than anticipated. One site was unsuccessful at Stage 1; five were making good to excellent progress, no AOC was restored. Bi-national AOC had the most problems. The EA-RAPPIEF's unique contribution is to establish aninformation base for assessing the adequacy of the RAP process as a strategy to restore and sustain AOC's ecological health. The EA-RAPPIEF is a device which local RAP participants can apply to assist implementation, including reforming their ecosystem's political ecology, presently the greatest barrier to success.
#|Belanger SE.  Literature review and analysis of biological complexity in model stream ecosystems: Influence of size and experimental design.  ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY, 1997, V36, N1 (FEB), P1-16.  A meta-analysis of more than 150 model stream ecosystem studies employed in hazard assessment was conducted to assess the effect of model ecosystem size on biological complexity and experimental design, Test system length was highly correlated to duration of colonization and chemical exposure period; however, size was generally unrelated to taxa richness, diversity, abundance, or biomass for algal, protozoan, and invertebrate assemblages, Fish were usually caged and not free-roaming, even in the relatively large (>10 m) systems, Experimental designs, especially in recent years, have been less concerned with pseudoreplication, resulting in studies emphasizing numerous treatments with few or no replicates, Test systems have evolved that emphasize flow through exposures, use of natural source waters, and regression-style experimental designs, These factors collectively reduce problems historically associated with pseudoreplication, Larger model ecosystems (>6 m) are advantageous for increasing the ability to sample more intensively through time and space without imposing sampling artifacts, Fish (caged and free-roaming) are also more often used in larger systems, Several model ecosystem studies that were compared with natural field-based communities demonstrated a high degree of correspondence for biological complexity attributes. Well-designed model stream ecosystems have a high degree of biological complexity and reasonable levels of variability for ecologically relevant endpoints, The use of small application factors (approximate to 1) is applicable to ecotoxicological results from these studies for risk assessment.
#|Bell, D. Craig ; Willardson, Tony.  Some Things Old and Some Things New - The Park City Principles: A Greater Role For the States in National Water Policy.  American Water Resources Association: Proceedings of the Symposia on Water Resources Education: A Lifetime of Learning and Changing Roles in Water Resources Management and Policy Bellevue, WA. June 27-30, 1993  p 495-504.  American Water Resources Association. Given an increasingly complex and changing system of values in water, The Western States Water Council and Western Governors' Association areaddressing challenges and opportunities for western water management. A series of workshops, begun in Park City, Utah, brought together federal, state and tribal water managers, fish andwildlife interests, environmentalists, academicians, and water and power user groups. This group recommended principles for improving institutional decision making through:a holistic or systematic approach at the "problemshed;" a policy framework responsible to a diverse set of economic, social and environmental values; within national policy parameters, the decentralization of authority and accountability in implementing these principles; joint state and federal participation in policy development and program administration; and a preference for performance standards, market mechanisms and negotiation, as distinct from command and control approaches, and litigation. The states emerge as the pivotal level of government for leadership and accountability in implementing these principles. States have the primary role in allocating water supplies, administering water rights, and implementing programs to protect water quality and public values. The federal government has an important continuing role in operating federal projects, exercising trust responsibilities and providing research and financial support The use of these principles promise to help reduce conflicts and balance the West's limited water resources with increasingly complex and competing demands, consistent with contemporary values.
#|BenDavidNovak H, Schick AP.  The response of Acacia tree populations on small alluvial fans to changes in the hydrological regime: Southern Negev desert, Israel.  CATENA 29: (3-4) 341-351 MAY 1997.  Two species of Acacia-A. tortilis and A. raddiana-inhabit channel beds of ephemeral streams in the hyperarid region of Eilat, Southern Negev, Israel. A survey was conducted on two adjacent small alluvial fans in this region in order to investigate the effect of an abrupt change in the hydrological regime on patterns of mortality and regeneration of Acacia tree populations. Changes in the Acacia tree population of the Nahal Yael alluvial fan, which was dammed at its apex 19 years ago, were compared with those in the adjacent Nahal Naomi alluvial fan which was left in its natural, unaltered state. The results show a 2.3 times higher mortality and a 4.1 times lower regeneration in the tree population of the Nahal Yael alluvial fan compared to that of Nahal Naomi. Patterns of mortality and regeneration of the Acacia tree population in the surveyed area are primarily influenced by surface flows, in contrast to groundwater, as generally assumed.
#|Bendixsen, R. B.  Hanford Site Treated Effluent Disposal Facility process flow sheet.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: WHC-SA-1751; CONF-9307105-1.  Apr 93.  12p.  Annual American Nuclear Society (ANS) meeting, San Diego, CA (United States), 20-24 Jul 1993. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC. This report presents a novel method of using precipitation, destruction and recycle factors to prepare a process flow sheet. The 300 Area Treated Effluent Disposal Facility (TEDF) will treat process sewer waste water from the 300 Area of the Hanford Site, located near Richland, Washington, and discharge a permittable effluent flow into the Columbia River. When completed and operating, the TEDF effluent water flow will meet or exceed water quality standards for the 300 Area process sewer effluents. A preliminary safety analysis document (PSAD), a preconstruction requirement, needed a process flow sheet detailing the concentrations of radionuclides, inorganics and organics throughout the process, including the effluents, and providing estimates of stream flow quantities, activities, composition, and properties (i.e. temperature, pressure, specific gravity, pH and heat transfer rates).  As the facility begins tooperate, data from process samples can be used to provide better estimates of the factors, the factors can be entered into the flow sheet and the flow sheet will estimate more accurate steady state concentrations for the components. This report shows how the factors were developed and how they were used in developing a flow sheet to estimate component concentrations for the process flows. The report concludes with how TEDF sample data can improve the ability of the flow sheet to accurately predict concentrations of components in the process.
#|Benhra, A., Radetski, C. M., & Ferard, J. F.  Cryoalgotox: Use of cryopreserved alga in a semistatic microplate test.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY. 1997, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 505-508. Use of cryopreserved alga Selenastrum capricornutum has been evaluated as a simple and cost-efficient procedure in a new semistatic algal ecotoxicity test. Experiments have been conducted to compare performance criteria of this method, named Cryoalgotox, versus the classic microplate test using fresh algae. Cryoalgotox 72-h 50% effective concentrations (EC50s) determined with Cd super(2+), Cu super(2+), Cr super(6+), and atrazine were more sensitive, repeatable (low coefficients of variation), and reproducible (low time effect) than the results obtained with the classical microplate tests. The effect of storage time at -80 degree C on the sensitivity of the algae was assessed using cadmium as a toxic reference it was shown that algae stored at -80 degree C over a 3-month period gave comparable toxicity results to those found with fresh algae.
#|BENNETT, WILLIAM ROBERT.  EFFECTS OF CHLORINATED PHENOLICS AND DIDECYLDIMETHYLAMMONIUM CHLORIDE ON SWIMMING PERFORMANCE, GROWTH AND LETHALITY OF THE EARLY LIFE STAGES OF WHITE STURGEON (ACIPENSER TRANSMONTANUS).  Degree:  M.SC., 1996.  SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY (CANADA).  Many sturgeon populations worldwide are vulnerable, threatened or locally extinct. White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) are an important species in Canada and are classed as vulnerable. In fact, when numerous large ($\approx$130 kg) white sturgeon (A. transmontanus) washed ashore in the lower Fraser River in 1993 and 1994, public concern was raised over the possibility that toxic effluents may be affecting sturgeon survival. My objective was to test the early life stages of white sturgeon with chemicals found in the Fraser River.  My focus was on chlorinated phenolics and didecyldimethylammonium chloride because of the increase in forest industry (pulp mill and cut lumber) waste water discharge into the Fraser River in the past 30 years.  Chlorinated phenolics (guaiacols, catechols, vanillins) are components of pulp mill wastewater and have been detected in the Fraser River. In addition, didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) is a cationic quarternary ammonia fungicide that is used by the cut lumber industry and has also been detected in lumber storage site runoff along the lower Fraser River.
#|Bentley, M ; Longley, G. Impact assessment of industrial effluents on freshwater ecosystems.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1123-1128, 1993.  European Conf. on Ecotoxicology.  Amsterdam (Netherlands), 1992 May, 11-15.  The classical way of deriving water quality criteria and monitoring the aquatic environment is not always protective for aquatic life. In this study the impact of an industrial effluent on a river was examined. The proposed method examines the effluent as a whole and takes into account the in-stream conditions of the receiving water, including the pollution already present. Existing techniques consisting of laboratory bioassays (acute and chronic) and field surveys, were combined. This combination made it possible: (1) to assess the actual effect of the effluent on the aquatic organisms (2) to discriminate between the effect of the individual discharge and the pollution already present and (3) to propose "safe" discharge levels.
#|Bentley, M ; Longley, G.Toxicity of municipal wastewater effluents.  NEW WAVES vol. 6, no. 1, p. 2, 1993.  Regulatory agencies traditionally rely on numeric criteria for specific pollutants. These criteria may not adequately measure the actual toxicity of contaminants to aquatic organisms. Biomonitoring using test species such as "water fleas" or Daphnia species and fathead minnow larvae can more accurately depict the toxic effects of pollutants.
#|Bergman, H L.  New proposals for regulating metals in the aquatic environment: Geochemical, toxicological and physiological bases.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER:  WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 105-108, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  There is a growing consensus in the scientific and regulatory communities that a departure is needed from past empirical approaches for evaluating the toxicity of metals to aquatic organisms. New approaches show promise for linking organism responses to fundamental changes in the target tissue (e.g., gills of fish) and to the details of metal chemistry at the target tissue. Mathematical models of both the biological and chemical processes can be used to estimate the bioavailable metal concentration at the target tissue. The next steps required include further validation of these models in additional species, additional metals, and a range of water quality conditions, along with the incorporation of receiving water exposure models. These models would explicitly take into account what has been termed "bioavailability" and have the potential to be predictive across a wide range of environmental conditions. This approach marks a turning point in developing a mechanistically based, workable method for assessing the effects of metal exposure on aquatic organisms, and the method could lead to a more fundamental approach to regulatory decisions about metals in the aquatic environment. The proposed approach, including the geochemical, toxicological and physiological bases, will be summarized in this presentation.
#|Bergman, H. L.; MacRae, R. K.  New Approach to the Determination of Bioavailable Metals in Surface Waters.  (Final technical rept. 1 May 91-30 Apr 94).  Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Bolling AFB, DC. Report No.: AFOSR-TR-94-0655.  26 Sep 94, 49p.  Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Contract No.: AFOSR-91-0258; 3484; RS. The goal of this research was to develop analytical methods capable of determining the concentration of toxic (bioavailable) forms of copper in natural surface waters. The approach should also be applicable to other metals. The approach was: (1) to determine the apparent binding affinity of the gills of fish and other aquatic biota for copper using novel competition bioassay and copper residue accumulation techniques; and (2) to modify the performance of commercial cation exchange resins or synthesize custom-made cation exchange resins, to match the copper binding affinity of fish and other aquatic biota. Using a range of procedures, the apparent copper binding affinities (log of the Apparent Binding Affinity (ABA)) were determined for rainbow trout gills (6.4-7.2), brook trout gills (7.1-7.2), trout mucus (6.97.7), and Daphnia magna (6.6-8.1). Based on these results an acceptable value for log ABA would be 7.6 for cation-exchange chromatography procedures to measure the bioavailable fraction of copper.  Commercially available resins under a variety of conditions consistently had copper binding affinities that were 2 to 3 orders of magnitude higher than the measured values for aquatic biota. Custom cation exchange resins were synthesized and yielded binding affinities closer to that of aquatic biota, but additional work is needed to standardize and validate this approach.  Bioavailability, Metals, Water quality, Copper, Aquatic biota, Toxicity, Fish.
#|Bermingham, S ; Maltby, L ; Cooke, R C.  Effects of a coal mine effluent on aquatic hyphomycetes. 1. Field study.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 1311-1321, 1996. The effect of a discharge from an abandoned coal mine on the structure and functioning of aquatic hyphomycete assemblages colonizing leaf material was investigated. The discharge resulted in elevated concentrations of iron, manganese, magnesium, calcium and nickel in the receiving water. The rate of processing of both alder and sycamore leaves was reduced downstream of the discharge. Measurements of oxygen uptake by microbes associated with leaf material indicated a lower activity at this station. This reduction in activity was particularly marked for the fungal assemblages associated with leaf material.  Scanning electron micrographs of leaf surfaces indicated that hyphal cover was also reduced on downstream-incubated leaf material. The observed reduction in fungal activity and hyphal cover below the mine discharge may have resulted from a change in species-specific fungal biomass and/or a change in the number of fungal species present.  Surveys indicated that the structure of the fungal assemblage was different below the discharge, with fewer species being recorded.  Results from this study therefore suggest that the reduction in leaf decomposition observed downstream of the mine discharge was due to a reduction in fungal activity associated with a change in species composition.
#|Bernardova, I., T.G.  Development of the Pollution of the River Morava Evaluated from Zoobenthic Communities.  Water Sci Technol  v29, n3, p29(7) 1994.  The river Morava in the Czech Republic is highly polluted, due to high population density, intensive agricultural production, and effluent discharges. An extensive biological monitoring system has been in effect for the river since the mid-1970s. The sampling points are located in areas of marked spatial changes in the water quality, but each point has been sampled only once every 3-4 yr since 1976, due to economic constraints. An overview of the sampling program is presented, including the development of a saprobic index and the use of mathematical models to extrapolate the limited data.
#|Bervoets, L ; Baillieul, M ; Blust, R ; De Boeck, G ; Verheyen, R.  Impact assessment of industrial effluents on freshwater ecosystems.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY. Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1123-1128, 1993.  European Conf. on Ecotoxicology: Amsterdam (Netherlands), 1992 May 11-15.  The classical way of deriving water quality criteria and monitoring the aquatic environment is not always protective for aquatic life. In this study the impact of an industrial effluent on a river was examined. The proposed method examines the effluent as a whole and takes into account the in-stream conditions of the receiving water, including the pollution already present. Existing techniques consisting of laboratory bioassays (acute and chronic) and field surveys, were combined. This combination made it possible: (1) to assess the actual effect of the effluent on the aquatic organisms (2) to discriminate between the effect of the individual discharge and the pollution already present and (3) to propose "safe" discharge levels.
#|Bervoets, L ; Baillieul, M ; Blust, R ; Verheyen, R.  Evaluation of effluent toxicity and ambient toxicity in a polluted lowland river.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION vol. 91, no. 3, pp. 333-341, 1996.  The impact of an industrial effluent containing high loads of calcium, cadmium, lead chloride and sulphate, on a river ecosystem was assessed using a combination of an effluent toxicity test, an ambient toxicity test and an ecological survey. Only this combination of techniques made it possible to discriminate between the effects of the discharge and those of the background pollution. Each of the individual techniques detected essential effects which the other failed to reveal. With the physical and chemical measurements, important increases of several components were measured at all sampling sites downstream of the discharge. With the ecological survey, however, no large changes in water quality could be determined at the sampling sites, due to the high degree of pollution present upstream of the discharge.  Reproduction of Daphnia magna, exposed to sublethal effluent dilutions, was followed over two generations. The offspring of the first generation were shown to have an increased sensitivity to the effluent, compared to the first generation that was born from previously unexposed mothers. Besides the toxicity of the effluent, the acute and chronic toxicity of its main component, CaCl sub(2), was also determined. The results of the CaCl sub(2)-tests and toxicity data from literature for the suspected toxicants were transformed to Toxic Units (TU). Using the sum of the TUs we investigated the possibility of predicting effluent toxicity to Daphnia magna. Effluent toxicity was under-estimated by calculating the sum of the TUs of the individual components. Dilution of the effluent to a level at which the measured toxicant concentrations comply with European regulations still showed significant effects on Daphnia reproduction.
#|Besser, J. M.; Giesy, J. P.; Brown, R. W.; Buell, J. M.; Dawson, G. A.  Selenium bioaccumulation and hazards in a fish community affected by coal fly ash effluent.  Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety  vol. 35 (1):  p.7-15, 1996.  Selenium concentrations in tissues of fish from Pigeon River and Pigeon Lake, Lake Michigan, which receives Se input from a coal fly ash disposal facility, were examined in order to assess potential hazards to fish, wildlife and humans.  Se levels in fish from the vicinity of the fly ash disposal ponds were significantly greater than those upstream and were also greater than background Se levels in fish from the Great Lakes. Se levels in effluent from the ash pond to Pigeon River, and Se levels in springs and seeps near the ash ponds, exceed the water quality criterion for protection of aquatic life. Interspecific variation between fish species was greatest at the most contaminated sites. Limnetic species generally contained greater Se levels than benthic species. Se levels in fish from the lower Pigeon River and Pigeon Lake did not exceed lowest observable adverse effect concentrations (LOAEC) for tissue Se in fish species, but exceeded LOAEC for dietary Se exposure of sensitive species of birds and mammals.  The results suggest that human consumption of moderate quantities of fish from areas examined should not result in excessive Se intake.
#|BIANCHINI A, WASIELESKY W, & MIRANDA KC. (1996). TOXICITY OF NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS TO JUVENILES OF FLATFISH PARALICHTHYS ORBIGNYANUS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY, V56, N3, P453-459.  Boyer R., & Grue C.E.  The need for water quality criteria for frogs.  1995.  Environmental Health Perspectives;  103/4 (352-357).  Amphibians are considered reliable indicators of environmental quality. In the western United States, a general decline of frog populations parallels an apparent worldwide decline. The factors thought to be contributing to declines in frog populations include habitat loss, introduction of exotic species, overexploitation, disease, climate change, and decreasing water water quality. With respect to water quality, agroecosystems use 80-90% of the water resources in the western United States, frequently resulting in highly eutrophic conditions. Recent investigations suggest that these eutrophic conditions (elevated pH, water temperature, and un-ionized ammonia) may be associated with frog embryo mortality or malformations. However, water quality criteria for frogs and other amphibians do not currently exist. Here, we briefly review data that support the need to develop water quality parameters for frogs in agroecosystems and other habitats.
#|Bilby, Robert E.  Water quality monitoring in Washington's Timber/Fish/Wildlife program. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 26 (2-3):p249-262 1993.  Workshop on Improving Natural Resource ManagementThrough Monitoring Corvallis, Oregon, USA  March 10-11, 1992.
#|Birge, W J ; Shaw, J R ; Price, D J ; Kercher, M D ; Zuiderveen, J A.  Persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity of silver in freshwater systems.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  pp. 113-120, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI: 1996 Aug 25-28.  A bioassessment study was conducted on the transport, fate and effects of silver and other metals in Big Bayou Creek in Western Kentucky. Results of environmental chemistry, effluent and ambient toxicity studies and ecological surveys were integrated to assess the effects of metal pollution. The stream system was a second to third order tributary of the Ohio River was of moderate gradient and was characterized by good habitat quality and frequent riffles, runs and pools. Sediment characteristics generally were comparable throughout the study area. The creek received four continuous and four intermittent effluent outfalls from a uranium enrichment plant. The discharge volume of the continuous effluent totaled 3.96 million gallons per day (MGD) and, in downstream order, included approximately 0.44 MGD for 009, 1.18 for 008, 0.71 for 006, and 1.63 for 001. The study area encompassed 10.7 stream km and included nine stream monitoring stations (BB1-BB9) and eight effluent monitoring points.  Water column residence time for metals calculated from the effluent 009 outfall were 0.65 hr, 1.2 hr, and 2.31 hr for downstream stations BB7, BB8 and BB9, respectively. The principal reference station (BB1) was 1.4 km upstream of the first effluent outfall (009). A nearby secondary reference station (BB2) also was located just upstream of effluent 009 and was used primarily for the collection of fish and macroinvertebrate taxa used for "sentinel monitoring" to characterize metal bioavailability. Ecological surveys included the collection of resident biota from all stream stations, including sites located downstream of each effluent. Ecological perturbation primarily affected macroinvertebrate populations. The latter were sampled in spring, summer, and fall of the first year of the study and annually thereafter for five years. Average results from the first two-years for total macroinvertebrate density and number of taxa are illustrated in Figure 1. Macroinvertebrate species richness and density were reduced perceptibly in the effluent receiving zone, amounting to losses of 33 and 77%, respectively. Abundance of mayfly taxa was reduced by more than 50% immediately below the 009 outfall. Multimetrics based on U.S. EPA Protocol III (Plafkin et al., 1989), were used to calculate bioassessment (BA) scores, which indicated moderate to substantial impact for stations BB3-BB7. Toxicological characterization of effluents and receiving waters was performed using chronic biomonitoring procedures with Ceriodaphnia dubia and the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas (Weber et al., 1989). Of approximately 300 on-site tests, 92 were conducted on the continuously flowing effluents that discharged into Big Bayou Creek. Significant toxicity was observed for effluent 008 50% of the time. Effluent 004, which tested positive in 100% of tests conducted, originated from a secondary waste treatment plant and entered 008 just prior to its entry into Big Bayou Creek upstream of station BB4. As discussed below, metal uptake in resident biota was highest at this station.
#|Birge-W.J.; Black-J.A.  In situ Acute/Chronic Toxicological Monitoring of Industrial Effluents for the NPDES Biomonitoring Program Using Fish and Amphibian Embryo-Larval Stages as Test Organisms. Final rept. Kentucky Univ., Lexington.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water Enforcement and Permits. Sep 81. 135p. The Clean Water Act has necessitated further requirements and revisions in the industrial permit program maintained under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). It is now evident that in many cases the identification and control of toxic substances cannot be accomplished solely on the basis of an effluent guideline approach, emphasizing the need for reliable and economical procedures with which to quantify directly the net toxicity of complex effluents and estimate acute and chronic effects on aquatic biota. Therefore, the major objective of this investigation was to develop and evaluate fish and amphibian embryo-larval test procedures for the toxicogical characterization of municipal and industrial effluents.
#|Birkeland GH.  RIPARIAN VEGETATION AND SANDBAR MORPHOLOGY ALONG THE LOWER LITTLE COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA.  Physical Geography. 17(6):534-553, 1996 Nov-Dec.  The distribution of riparian vegetation in relation to channel morphology is poorly understood in canyon rivers, which are characterized by in-channel fluvial sediment deposits rather than flood plains. This study focuses on vegetation and sandbar characteristics in two reaches of the lower Little Colorado River canyon in Arizona-one reach with ephemeral flow from the watershed, and another with perennial baseflow from a spring. Both reaches have been colonized by the exotic Tamarix chinensis, a riparian species known for its geomorphic influence on river channels. On the basis of a sampling of 18 bars, results show that vegetation frequency and density is significantly greater in the perennial study reach. However, sandbar morphology variables do not differ between reaches, despite a significantly narrower and deeper ephemeral channel. Hydraulic calculations of flood depths and Pearson correlations between bar and vegetation variables indicate reach-specific bio-geomorphic relationships. In the ephemeral reach, higher bars are less affected by flood inundation, support older vegetation, and may be more stable habitat for vegetation. In the wider perennial reach where bars are lower and more expansive, vegetation patterns relate to bar size, Tamarix being most common on the largest bars. Overall results suggest that (1) vegetation variation relates to baseflow hydrology, (2) bar formation relates to high discharge events, and (3) vegetation patterns respond to, rather than influence, sandbar form in this canyon riparian system.
#|Bishop, J H ; Canfield, D E ,Jr.  Water quality and aquatic macrophyte responses to natural and anthropogenic changes in the environment in Kings Bay, Crystal River, Florida.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 9, no. 2, p. 57, 1994. Kings Bay/Crystal River is located on the west coast of Florida, approximately 75 miles North of Tampa. Treated municipal effluent was removed from Kings Bay in March, 1992 in an attempt to reduce ambient nutrient concentrations (total phosphorus and total nitrogen) and the abundance of submersed aquatic plants. A tidal storm, which caused extensive flooding in the area, hit Kings Bay in March, 1993. Elimination of treated municipal effluent from Kings Bay did not significantly reduce total phosphorus and total nitrogen concentrations in Kings Bay. Pre-removal TP and TN concentrations were 36 mu g/L and 313 mu g/L, respectively. Post-removal concentrations were 30 mu g/L and 263 mu g/L, respectively. TP and TN concentrations were significantly reduce in Cedar Cove, the area of discharge. Pre-removal TP and TN concentrations in Cedar Cove were 106 mu g/L and 567 mu g/L, respectively. Post-removal concentrations were 30 mu g/L and 239 mu g/L, respectively. The March tidal storm elevated TP and TN concentrations above previously measured concentrations. TP concentrations were higher at each station and TN concentrations were higher at 16 out of 20 stations. The abundance of submersed vegetation, Hydrilla verticillata, Myriophyllum spicatum, Vallisneria americana, and Lyngbya sp., was reduced following the March Storm, but has increased in abundance in the summer of 1994, despite the removal of the treated municipal effluent.
#|Bissett, Lisa L. Field assessment of stream/aquifer interaction under semi-arid conditions and problems with computer representation.  1994. Thesis (M. Eng.)--Colorado School of Mines.  As the population increases and technological development grows in Colorado, problems with the appropriation of water are becoming more serious and common. Surface water rights are particularly difficult to obtain, so groundwater is becoming especially important to newcomers and entities with junior water rights. The relationship of groundwater use to stream discharge is well known, but difficult to quantify. Groundwater models have attempted to address the problem, but while some promising new codes have been developed, they have not been adequately tested and are not generally used. A field area in Golden, Colorado containing a small, ephemeral stream was studied with the aim of specifying problems associated with the modeling codes used in the area of stream/aquifer interaction. Field data describing the streamflow, streambed hydraulic conductivity, aquifer hydraulic conductivity and aquifer hydraulic heads were available, and data regarding streambed and aquifer geometries were collected. The scale and types of data collected were chosen to obtain information regarding flow and gradients across and surrounding the stream boundary. This information was used to construct and calibrate a MODFLOW groundwater flow model. MODFLOW mathematically models a three dimensional area in steady state or transient modes. The area is discretized into a three dimensional grid to which boundary conditions are set on all sides. Each grid cell is assigned parameter values. The model calculates the hydraulic head and the flow into and out of each grid cell. The Streamflow Routing Package was used as the stream module in MODFLOW. This package is more an accounting program, tracking the flow in streams interacting with the groundwater, than a true surface-water flow model. It allows the user to specify the stream stage or to have the code determine the stream stage. This second option is an improvement on the original MODFLOW river module. The original module used constant stream stages; it calculated the seepage between the groundwater system and the stream, but did not allow the stream stage to vary in response seepage.
#|Bitton G. Rhodes K. Koopman B.  CerioFAST: An acute toxicity test based on Ceriodaphnia dubia feeding behavior.  Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry 15(2). 1996. 123-125. We have developed a rapid acute toxicity test (CerioFAST) based on suppression of feeding activity of Ceriodaphnia dubia in the presence of toxicants. The bioassay consists of a 1-h exposure period to a given toxicant. Yeast cells, stained with a fluorescent dye, are added 20 min before the end of the exposure period. Response to a toxic sample is indicated by the absence of fluorescence in the gut of the daphnids. CerioFAST was compared to the standard 48-h C. dubia acute bioassay, using heavy metals and organic compounds.  CerioFAST EC50s of Cd, Cu, Pb, Ag, Zn, and carbofuran were in the 0.01-0.1-mg/L range, whereas EC50s of hexachloroethane, pentachlorophenol, trichlorophenol, and lindane were in the 1-10-mg/L range. CerioFAST EC50s of the heavy metals and organics were well correlated with EC50s obtained with the 48-h C. dubia bioassay.
#|Bitton,-G.; Rhodes,-K.; Koopman,-B.; Cornejo,-M.  Short-term toxicity assay based on daphnid feeding behavior. WATER-ENVIRON.-RES. 1995  vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 290-293.  A rapid acute toxicity assay based on feeding behavior of Ceriodaphnia dubia was developed and evaluated. Feeding behavior was observed by staining yeast cells with a nontoxic stain (DTAF), which fluoresces under epifluorescent illumination, feeding the stained yeast to daphnids after they were exposed to toxicants for 6 hours, and observing the uptake of yeast by the daphnids. The endpoint of the test is the presence or absence of fluorescence in the daphnid gut. An exposure time of 6 hours was utilized so that the test could be completed in one working day. The 6-hour feeding activity suppression assay was compared with the standard 48-hour acute bioassay for determining the toxicity of selected heavy metals, organic compounds, and industrial effluent samples. The EC sub(50)s of pure compounds obtained via the 6-hour and 48-hour tests were well correlated (P < 0.05). EC sub(50)s of industrial wastewaters obtained via the two tests were also correlated at the same level of significance. The 6-hour feeding activity suppression assay was generally more sensitive than the 48-hour acute bioassay.
#|Bleckmann, C A ; Rabe, B ; Edgmon, S J ; Fillingame, D.  Aquatic toxicity variability for fresh- and saltwater species in refinery wastewater effluent.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 7, pp. 1219-1223.  1995.  The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established test equirements for toxicity reduction or toxicity identification evaluations (TR/TIE) of wastewater effluents. Interpretations of test results are complicated by factors other than toxicity when essentially freshwater wastewaters flow into estuaries and the effluent permit requires marine organisms for testing. This paper reports the results of an investigation of potential freshwater surrogate species, and Microtox registered , for use in such a TIE. Of the five species tested, mysid shrimp were found to be most sensitive to unidentified toxicants in petroleum refinery wastewater. No strong correlations of this sensitivity to that of other organisms, or to several wastewater constituents, were identified. The two marine species specified in the effluent permit were more sensitive to the toxicants than were the freshwater species.
#|Bodaly, R A ; Rudd, J W M ; Flett, R J.  Effect of urban sewage treatment on total and methyl mercury concentrations in effluents.  FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE: MERCURY AS GLOBAL POLLUTANT, 1996 Aug 4-8.  Hamburg (Germany): Kluwer Academic Publishers.  Rudd, J W M ; Gilmour, C C ; Bodaly, R A  (eds ).  BIOGEOCHEMISTRY vol. 40, no. 2-3 pp. 279-291, 1998.  The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of sewage treatment on total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations in domestic effluents and the contribution of urban sewage treatment facilities to THg and MeHg in rivers. We determined the concentrations of THg and MeHg in unfiltered samples of untreated and treated domestic sewage from the three treatment facilities and receiving river water within the City of Winnipeg. The concentrations of THg in the Red and Assiniboine rivers ranged from 3-31 ng/L. THg was related positively to suspended sediment concentrations in the rivers.  The concentrations of MeHg in these rivers were usually 0.2-0.3 ng/L. THg concentrations in raw sewage varied widely, from 2-150 ng/L. Treatment removed an average of 88% of this mercury. MeHg concentrations in raw sewage were 0.5-4.3 ng/L, however, after treatment at two treatment facilities, MeHg was greatly reduced, usually to 0.1-0.4 ng/L. Most treated sewage, therefore, had MeHg concentrations that were similar to levels in the receiving rivers and the effect of discharged effluent was usually a change of about 2% or less on concentrations in the rivers. However, one of the facilities (the West End plant) was discharging higher concentrations of MeHg, up to 2 ng/L, causing calculated increases of up to 11% in the concentration of MeHg in the Assiniboine River.
#|Bonner-LA; Diehl-WJ; Altig-R.  Physical, chemical and biological dynamics of five temporary dystrophic forest pools in central Mississippi. Hydrobiologia. 1997, 353: 77-89.  Five temporary forest pools at Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge, Mississippi, USA, were surveyed monthly for three years to gain a better understanding of the dynamics of temporary aquatic habitats. The objective of this study was to characterize the physicochemical and biological changes in temporary pools in order to assess the temporal habitat diversity. These ecosystems, all within no more than 4 km of one another, were heterotrophic with a detrital-based food web derived from allochthonous leaf litter from the surrounding mixed forest. The pools were chosen because of their close proximity to one another, they historically filled and dried seasonally, and they were known breeding sites for resident amphibian populations. Only 47% of the amphibian cohorts inhabiting the pools appeared to thrive and metamorphose prior to pool desiccation. Successful development and dispersal of larvae was variable among pools and years. The pool filling cycles differed among habitats and physiochemical and biological parameters were highly variable. The data suggest that ephemeral pools in this central piedmont region of Mississippi are each unique and represent habitats of low predictability for amphibian breeding and success. It is concluded that it is erroneous to draw generalizations regarding a 'typical' temporary pool ecosystem within this region.
#|Borchardt, Dietrich, Sperling, Frank. Urban Stormwater Discharges: Ecological Effects on Receiving Waters and Consequences for Technical Measures. Water Sci Technol  v36, n8-9, p173(6), 1997.  In central Europe, 30-50 sewer overflow events occur each year, lasting from one to several hours each. The data show that the short-term and delayed impacts of stormwater runoff are caused by site-specific parameters, which are also seen for overflows. In order to protect receiving waters from the adverse effects of stormwater runoff and overflows, critical combinations of receiving-water properties and urban-catchment properties need to be evaluated. A screening method is outlined for identifying these parameters, which considers chemical constituents, and hydraulic disturbances related to bed-sheer stress that exceed the frequencies and levels of natural conditions. Both criteria are combined into a problem-solving decision-making scheme that focuses on keyreceiving-water problems, such as a decrease in species abundance and/or population densities.
#|Borton, D L ; Streblow, W R ; Bradley, W K ; Bousquet, T ; Van Veld, P A; Wolke, R E ; Walsh, A H.  Survival, growth, production and biomarker responses of fish exposed to high-substitution bleached kraft mill effluent in experimental streams. ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS.  Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J (eds ). pp. 473-481, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL.  Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas) were exposed to a high-substitution bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) at 0, 4 and 8% by volume in experimental streams for 263 d. The total production of all fish from the 8% effluent was nearly double the production in other streams, and the production of the four fish species in the stream receiving 4% effluent was very similar to the production in the two control streams. Fish were evaluated using several biomarkers (EROD, P450IA, hematocrit, leucocrit, condition factor, LSI, SSI) and histopathology but elevated liver P450IA content and EROD activity were the only responses that could be concluded to be caused by effluent exposure. The large number of significant differences between biomarkers of fish from the two controls or between an effluent exposure and only one of the two controls limited the interpretation of other biomarkers. Since the survival, growth and production of fish with elevated liver P450IA and EROD activity were not adversely affected by the effluent, these biomarkers did not correspond to the population level parameters measured in this study.
#|Botterweg, J ; Risselada, J.  Environmental Flows in New South Wales - What is the Aim and What Might They Look Like. Poster Papers, 15th Federal Convention, Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Volume 4, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, April 18-23, 1993, p 926-931. Australian Water and Wastewater Association. Water extractions reduce streamflows. The time relocation effect of flow regulation is also important as dams allow flood water or seasonal peaks in river flows to be stored for later use at times of naturally low flow. Thus the seasonality of high and low flows may be subdued or even reversed and flood frequencies drastically lowered. The detrimental effect of regulation on natural stream ecology has been obvious for many years. Although numerous methods exist for determining the environmental flows which supply systems must provide, many of these models and analytical procedures are unsuitable for thevariable and erratic hydrology of Australia's rivers. This paper outlines the current approach to environmental flow management in New South Wales and particularly shows how this can be viewed as an exercise in risk management in the same way as many other water management decisions.
#|Botterweg, J ; Risselada, J.  Toxicity assessment of effluents in the Netherlands: Implementation, problems and prospects.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY.  Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H  (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1105-1113.  1993.  2. European Conf. on Ecotoxicology, Amsterdam (Netherlands).  1992 May 11-15.  For many years ecotoxicologists worldwide have been working on the implementation of their knowledge in the hazard assessment of industrial effluents. Chemical analyses and risk assessment of complex effluents are often problematic. Among ecotoxicologists there is little doubt about the usefulness of toxicity tests or toxicity data as complementary tools to the routine chemical risk assessment and control. In the Netherlands the use of aquatic toxicity data from the literature is now being incorporated into a scheme for the risk assessment of effluents when granting consent-to-discharge (permit) effluents. Despite the potential advantages of the use of toxicity tests in whole-effluent-toxicity assessments, they are used infrequently in the Netherlands. An analysis has been made of the possible causes of the delay in implementation of ecotoxicological knowledge and tools in the hazard assessment of effluents in the Netherlands.
#|Bowie, George L.; Sanders, James G.; Riedel, Gerhardt F.; Gilmour, Cynthia C.; Breitburg, Denise L.; Cutter, Gregory A.; Porcella, Doald B.  Assessing Selenium Cycling and Accumulation in Aquatic Ecosystems.  Water Air Soil Pollut  v90, n1-2, p93(12) Jul 96.  A joint experimental research and modeling study was conducted to develop a methodology for assessing selenium toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. The aim was to find how the various Se forms are accumulated by organisms, and what roles organisms play in biogeochemical cycling. In the research phase, both laboratory studies and field experiments were conducted, designed to compare the results of Se uptake, transfer, and transformation from laboratory experiments to similar results from actual ecosystems. The experimental data are presented, which were used to develop biogeochemical and food-web transfer models. The models are illustrated by application to the Hyco Reservoir, a power-plant-cooling reservoir in North Carolina that experienced fishery declines during the mid-1970s as a result of Se contamination from ash-pond effluents. Examination of the modeling results show that the model adequately predicts Se exposure and food-web accumulation, and follows the important biogeochemical processes controlling the fate of Se loading to lakes. The lower trophic levels are shown to bioconcentrate Se several orders of magnitude above the concentrations in water and to respond much more quickly to changing Se concentrations than benthos and fish.
#|Boyer, Robin; Grue, Christian E. The Need for Water Quality Criteria for Frogs.  Environ Health Perspec  v103, n4, p352(6), Apr 95.  Amphibians are considered reliable indicators of environmental quality, as all life stages are susceptible to dermal absorption of toxicants in water. Ingestion of contaminated prey is also a potential pathway for toxicants to enter amphibians. The factors contributing to the decline of frog populations are identified, including habitat loss, overexploitation, disease, climate change, and deteriorating water quality. The alterations in water quality have been attributed to acidification, contaminants in agroecosystems in the western US, and eutrophication. Currently, no water-quality criteria exist for amphibians in the US. Consequently, tolerance limits for amphibians need to be determined and compared with existing criteria for fishes and human health in light of the declines in the quantity and quality of water and amphibian populations in many areas of the US.
#|Bradbury, S., Nolt, C., Goodman, B., Stromborg, K., & Sullivan, J.  Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative Criteria Documents for the Protection of Wildlife (PROPOSED): DDT, Mercury 2,3,7,8-TCDD and PCBs.  Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of the Assistant Administrator for Water.  Apr 93, 56p. The document outlines, for each category of contaminant listed in the title, the relevant literature, the calculation of mammalian wildlife value, the calculation of Avian Wildlife Value, and the Great Lakes Wildlife criterion.
#|Bradley Brian P; Gonzalez Carole M; Bond Jayne-Anne; Tepper Bruce E.  Complex mixture analysis using protein expression as a qualitative and quantitative tool.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  13 (7):p1043-1050 1994.  Some proteins in organisms exposed to chemicals in stressful amounts or toxic concentrations show increased expression; others show decreased expression. These inducible and repressible proteins together potentially provide qualitative and quantitative diagnoses of components in complex mixtures of chemicals. We examined sets of proteins synthesized by Daphnia magna after exposure to mixtures of a cationic polyamide epichlorhydrin adduct (Kymene) and a combined assortment of water extractable substances from chemithermal-mechanical pulp (CTMP) in lab water. Proteins were identified, after extracting from Daphnia magna, by gel filtration and silver staining, or by radiolabeling and then gel separation. Patterns of proteins induced by Kymenee and by CTMP extracts were distinguishable in lab water, but there was interaction between them. The method of identifying and quantifying Kymene, however, was successful using lab simulations of mixtures. The method was tested using wastewater samples from a paper manufacturing plant. Kymene could be detected against variable levels and types of additional substances. But, again, there was interference, perhaps due to Kymene binding to other anionic polymers sometimes present in the samples. Interpretations from analyses of protein expression were consistent with results from sublethal Ceriodaphnia dubia assays.
#|Brady D; Letebele B; Duncan J R; Rose P D.  Bioaccumulation of metals by Scenedesmus, Selenastrum and Chlorella algae.  Water S A (Pretoria)  20 (3):p213-218 1994.  Three species of algae were investigated for their ability to accumulate metal ions. Scenedesmus, Selenastrum and Chlorella species were found to be capable of accumulating metals such as Cu-2+, Pb-2+, and Cr-3+ with 67 to 98% efficiency. Although Chlorella was less capable of accumulating these cations than the other two organisms, it possessed a greater capacity for the Cr-2O-7-2- anion. A suspension of Selenastrum was used to accumulate Cr-3+ from a sample of post-anaerobic digester tannery effluent. The algae removed 39% of the chromium from solution.  The rate of metal (Cu-2+, Pb-2+, Cr-3+) accumulation by Scenedesmus was rapid, occurring in the first 4 min. Of the 4 metals investigated, Cu-2+, Cr-3+, Pb-2+ and Cr-2O-7-2-, the former 2 were more toxic to the algae than the latter two.
#|Brasher, Anne M.; Ogle, R. Scott.  ComparativeToxicity of Selenite and Selenate to the Amphipod Hyalella azteca.  Arch Environ Contam Toxicol  v24, n2, p182(5) Feb 93. The comparative toxicity of two selenium forms to the amphipod Hyalella aztecia is reported. Selenite proved two to four times more toxic than selenate in 48-, 96-, and 240-h LC 50 tests. The difference in toxicity declined as exposure time increased. The difference in toxicity between the two Se forms was most pronounced in a 24-d reproductive bioassay. Selenite caused a marked decrease in number of young per female at a dose of 200 (gr)mg/l, while selenate exerted no effect up to 700 (gr)mg/l, the highest concentration tested.
#|Bright, D. A.; Coedy, B.; Dushenko, W. T.; Reimer, K. J.  Arsenic Transport in a Watershed Receiving Gold Mine Effluent Near Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada.  Sci Total Environ  v155, n3, p237(16) Oct 28, 94.  The fate of inorganic arsenic in aquatic systems was studied in a watershed impacted by gold mine effluent near Yellowknife, NWT, Canada.  Inorganic As in sediment particulates, pore water, and the water column had a maximum level 4-6 km downstream of mine input. Arsenite was the major form in sediment pore water and arsenate was the most abundant dissolved form in the water column. Mine effluent contained no arsenite, which was observed in increasing concentrations in water with increasing downstream distance from the input pipe. As distribution in surficial sediments appeared governed largely by bulk movement of sediments, followed by burial with less polluted materials in upper watershed reaches.
#|British Columbia. Water Quality Branch, Victoria.  Ambient fresh water and effluent sampling manual.  Report No.: ISBN-0-7726-2287-6.  1994.  80p.  This manual covers the minimum requirements needed to ensure quality and consistency of the field aspects of ambient water and effluent data collection.  The essential tasks in water sampling are to obtain a sample that meets program requirements in terms of location and frequency and to prevent deterioration and contamination of the sample before analysis.  Procedures in the manual include those for site location, making notes and observations, quality assurance and control, collection of samples from lakes and streams, collecting samples of effluent and receiving water, field measurements, field filtration and preservation, shipping of samples, and equipment cleaning. Appendices include checklists, data sheets, sample container and hold time criteria, and protocols for sampling the most common variables.
#|Brown, C A.  Macroinvertebrate community patterns in relation to physico-chemical parameters measured at two land-based trout farms affecting streams in the south-western Cape, South Africa.  ARCHIV FUER HYDROBIOLOGIE vol. 138, no. 1, pp. 57-76, 1996.  Macroinvertebrate community structure was investigated upstream, and at various distances downstream, of two trout farms situated alongside mountain streams in the south-western Cape, South Africa, in order to ascertain which of the constituents of trout-farm effluent identified by an earlier general survey were most responsible for changes in the macroinvertebrate communities downstream of the farms, and the concentrations at which the changes occurred. Of the farms, one used plastic-lined 'portapools' to house their fish, and the other, earthdams. Only the effluent discharged from the portapool trout farm resulted in notable changes in downstream benthic-macroinvertebrate community structure. The community downstream of the effluent outlets was dominated by non-insects, as opposed to the community upstream of the influence of the farm which was dominated by insect taxa. It was possible to recognise and identify differences in community structure upstream and downstream of the farms, and to relate these to organic pollution present in the systems. The macroinvertebrate community structure changed in response to relatively small changes in water physico-chemistry. Particulate organic material suspended in trout-farm effluent best correlated with the changes in the macroinvertebrate community structure recorded downstream of the portapool farm.  Maintenance of suspended particulate organic matter concentrations to below 1.5 mg l super(-1) (dry weight) in the river, should protect the integrity of the community structure of macroinvertebrate fauna of mountain streams in the south-western Cape, providing flows do not drop abnormally low relative to the historical condition.
#|Bruine-B-de; Rukura-L; De-Bruine-B; Rosbjerg-D (ed.); Boutayeb-NE (ed.); Gustard-A (ed.); Kundzewicz-ZW (ed.); Rasmussen-PF.  Sustainable development of water resources in a semiarid country such as Namibia. Sustainability of water resources under increasing uncertainty. Proceedings of an international symposium of the Fifth Scientific Assembly of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS), Rabat, Morocco, 23 April to 3 May 1997. In an arid to semiarid country, such as Namibia, water may be the single most important limiting resource in sustainable development. The planning and operation of surface water supply must therefore take into account the natural variability and unpredictability of the rainfall and river flow. Environmental water requirements of unique wetlands at the mouths or deltas of internationally shared rivers have to be duly considered should any form of development be undertaken. Historically the westward flowing rivers were opportunistically utilized by nomadic people and their cattle. An increase in population has resulted in increased pressure on the limited available resources. In the event of construction of dams on the ephemeral rivers, careful consideration has to be given to the possible effects on the downstream sites in these linear oases. All of the above factors point to the need for improved hydrological monitoring and modelling in arid zones with inherently uncertain hydrological regimes.
#|Bryce SA, Clarke SE.  Landscape-level ecological regions: Linking state-level ecoregion frameworks with stream habitat classifications.  ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 20: (3) 297-311 MAY-JUN 1996.  Regionalization is a form of spatial classification, where boundaries are drawn around areas that are relatively homogeneous in landscape characteristics. The process of delineating ecological regions, or ecoregions, includes the analysis of ecosystem structure. To date, ecoregions have been developed at national and slate scales for research and resource management. Stream classificationis another method to order the variability of aquatic habitats that spans spatial scales from microhabitat to valley segment. In this study, landscape-level ecoregions are developed for the upper Grande Ronde River basin in northeastern Oregon, 3000 sq km in area. The ecoregionframework presented here is proposed to bridge the gap between stream habitat and state-level ecoregion classifications. Classification at this scale is meant to address issues of management atlocal scales: to aid in sampling design, in extrapolation of the results oi site-specific studies, and inthe development of best management practices that are more predictive of ecosystem response than current methods.
#|Bubb, J M ; Lester, J N.  Partitioning and availability of sediment-bound metals following final sewage effluent release to a lowland river.  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. 162, no. 1, pp. 72-91, 1995.  A simple partitioning scheme was used to assess the partitioning and behaviour of copper, cadmium, iron, lead and manganese within the surface waters and sediments of the River Yare, Norfolk, UK, following the discharge of final effluent to the water course from municipal sewage treatment works (STW). Sewage effluent discharges were shown to increase metal concentrations and complexation capacities in receiving waters, but the tidal nature of the river meant that surface water monitoring could not accurately pinpoint the contamination source or the main metal partitioning trends. Sediments formed a more stable base on which to perform contaminant studies: these revealed that metals discharged from the STW rapidly accumulated in bottom deposits in relative stable chemical forms.
#|Bucher, F.; Hofer, R.  The effects of treated domestic sewage on three organs (gills, kidney, liver) of brown trout (Salmo trutta ).  WATER RES  VOL. 27, NO. 2, pp. 255-261, 1993.  In an experiment extending over approx. 3 months, brown trout (Salmo trutta) were exposed to dilutions of biologically-treated wastewater (13, 24 and 42%) from a large sewage plant. The two higher concentrations caused a sequence of histological changes in the kidney and, after some delay, in the liver as well. No effects were detectable in the gills however. In all dilutions of the biologically-treated sewage, external injury of the fish was rapidly followed by fungal infection.  Furthermore, kidney changes similar to those seen in the experiment were also observed in brown trout and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss ) caught downstream of the point at which the treated effluents from sewage plant entered the River Inn. The pathogenic effects of ammonia and nitrite in the treated sewage are discussed.
#|Bugosh, N.; James, W. Stormwater discharge permitting -- experiences in a rural western state.  Stormwater and Water Quality Management Modeling Conference Toronto, ON (Canada), 2-3 Mar 1995.  ADVANCES IN MODELING THE MANAGEMENT OF STORMWATER IMPACTS  pp. 223-238, 1996.  ANN ARBOR PRESS, INC., CHELSEA, MI. This work presents an evaluation of the performance of the stormwater permitting program in Montana, a rural western state. Stormwater program implementation in rural areas presents different challenges than those encountered in urban areas. The types of facilities, the types of stormwater discharge conveyances, and the resources available to address stormwater may be very different from urban areas. The work will discuss: the legal basis for Montana's stormwater program, the types of stormwater discharge permits available, the applicability of the various permits, the compliance activities permitteesmust conduct, the success of the program in achieving its goals, precautions for stormwater modelers working in Montana and similar areas, and the fee system that supports the program.
#|Bull WB. Discontinuous ephemeral streams.  GEOMORPHOLOGY 19: (3-4) 227-276 JUL 1997.  Many ephemeral streams in western North America flowed over smooth valley floors before transformation from shallow discontinuous channels into deep arroyos. These inherently unstablestreams of semiarid regions are sensitive to short-term climatic changes, and to human impacts, because hillslopes supply abundant sediment to infrequent large streamflow events.  Discontinuous ephemeral streams appear to be constantly changing as they alternate between two primary modes of operation; either aggradation or degradation may become dominant. Attainment of equilibrium conditions is brief. Disequilibrium is promoted by channel entrenchment that causes the fall of local base level, and by deposition of channel fans that causes the rise of local base level.  These opposing base-level processes in adjacent reaches are maintained by self-enhancing feedback mechanisms.  The threshold between erosion and deposition is crossed when aggradational or degradational reaches shift upstream or downstream. Extension of entrenched reaches into channel fans tends to create continuous arroyos. Upvalley migration of fan apexes tends to create depositional valley floors with few stream channels. Less than 100 years is required for arroyo cutting, but more than 500 years is required for complete aggradation of entrenched stream channels and valley floors.  Discontinuous ephemeral streams have a repetitive sequence of streamflow characteristics that is as distinctive as sequences of meander bends or braided gravel bars in perennial rivers. The sequence changes from degradation to aggradation - headcuts concentrate sheetflow, a single trunk channel conveys flow to the apex of a channel fan, braided distributary channels end in an area of diverging sheetflow, and converging sheetflow drains to headcuts. The sequence is repeated at intervals ranging from 15 m for small streams to more than 10 km for large streams.  Lithologic controls on the response of discontinuous ephemeral streams include: (1) amount and size of sediment yielded from hillslopes: (2) infiltration capacity of valley-floor alluvium that influences both the unit stream power available for upstream headcut migration, and the attenuation of flashy streamflow events by riparian vegetation in sheetflow reaches; and (3) cohesiveness of alluvium, which affects headcut and streambank morphology, and rates of arroyo extension, downcutting, and widening. Initiation of arroyo cutting may be too complex to be attributed to a single cause such as change in mean annual precipitation or grazing by livestock, but is most likely associated with a decrease in density of protective plant cover on hillsides and along valley floors. Relatively larger unit stream power makes downstream reaches more susceptible to initial entrenchment during floods than headwaters reaches, and favors persistent arroyos. Entrenchment continues until an equilibrium longitudinal profile is briefly attained. Then, channel widening occurs: streambanks are undercut and aggradation begins.
#|BUMGARDNER J, MALONE C, WALKER L F, & SHANKS R F.  USE OF MONTE CARLO TECHNIQUES TO ASSESS POTW COMPLIANCE WITH EPA WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR HEAVY METALS.  WATER ENVIRON RES, 65 (5). 1993.  674-678. This paper presents the results of a study (Larry Walker Associates, 1990) to determine the nature of additional controls necessary for the Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant (Regional Plant) to comply with the numeric water quality objectives for metals recently adopted by the State of California. In addition, the impact of Regional Plant effluent an Sacramento River metals concentrations is examined, and the costs of compliance with the new objectives are estimated. Monte Carlo techniques are used to determine the ability of the Regional Plant to achieve the metals objectives and the effects of treatment plant discharge on receiving water metal concentrations. Frequency distributions of advanced treatment efficiencies, such as lime precipitation and reverse osmosis, are used to simulate effluent concentration reductions that are potentially achievable. The costs associated with the additional treatment required to meet objectives are estimated using published cost estimates for advanced treatment plants of similar size. Results show that currently, the Regional Plant does not meet objectives for cadmium, copper, mercury, and zinc. Furthermore, the additional treatments evaluated would not completely eliminate violations of the copper and mercury objectives.
#|Burkhard, L P ; Sheedy, B R ; McCauley, D J.  Prediction of chemical residues in aquatic organisms for a field discharge situation.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 141-153, 1994.  A field study was performed which compared predicted and measured concentrations of chemicals in receiving water organisms from three sampling locations on Five Mile Creek, Birmingham, Al. Two point source discharges, both from coke manufacturing facilities, were included in the field site and five chemicals were studied, i.e., biphenyl, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene. Composite samples of effluent, receiving water organisms, crayfish (Decapoda) and sunfish (Lepomis sp.), and stream and discharge flow data were collected in March and April 1990. For the crayfish and sunfish, the measured residues were within a factor of 5 for 80% (12 of 15) and 53% (8 of 15) of the residues predicted using EPA's draft procedure (US-EPA 1991b), respectively, and were within a factor of 5 for 60% (9 of 15) and 40% (6 of 15) of the residues predicted using EPA's procedure with a BCF set equal to the chemical's K sub(ow) (after adjustment for lipid content of the organism), respectively. The predicted residues tended to be larger than the measured residues and with increasing K sub(ow) greater disagreement between the predicted and measured values was observed.
#|Burkhard-L.P.; Jenson-J.J.  Identification of Ammonia, Chlorine, and Diazinon as Toxicants in a Municipal Effluent.  Environmental Research Lab.-Duluth, MN.  AScI Corp., Duluth, MN. 1993. 12p.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 25, p506-515 1993.  A toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) was performed on a muncipal effluent, and three toxicants were identified, ammonia, chlorine, and diazinon. The report illustrates the types of data and logic used in performing a TIE which contains common municipal toxicants. Emphasis in this report was place on the data needed for generating the 'weight of evidence' in toxicant confirmation. Phase III, to support the suspect toxicants identified in the TIE process. Multiple Phase III manipulations, when applied to numerous effluent samples, provided consistent results for generating the 'weight of evidence' for the confirmation of ammonia and chlorine as the primary causes of toxicity of this effluent.
#|Burnison,-B.K.; Hodson,-P.V.; Nuttley,-D.J.; Efler,-S.  A bleached-kraft mill effluent fraction causing induction of a fish mixed-function oxygenase enzyme. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-CHEM. 1996  vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 1524-1531.  Pulp mill effluents contain a myriad of chemicals that have the potential to cause deleterious effects on aquatic biota in receiving waters. Some of these chemicals evoke an acute lethal response of exposed biota while others evoke sublethal responses. One such sublethal response is the induction of mixed-function oxygenases (MFO) in fish, specifically the CYP1A1 enzyme ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase (EROD). We followed the partitioning of the inducing chemicals in pulp mill effluent fractions by Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE), or bioassay-driven chemical analysis. This procedure was eventually modified to a more direct technique involving centrifugation, filtration, cleanup procedures, and C sub(18) solid-phase adsorption. The extracts from the fractionation of two pulp mill effluents after secondary treatment were tested for EROD-inducing activity in a 4-d rainbow trout bioassay. The methanol extracts of particulates/colloids showed significant inducing capacity in Mill A effluent but not in Mill B effluent. The C sub(18) methanol extracts induced activity from both effluents, with extracts from Mill A causing the greatest response. The particulate/colloidal extract (Mill A) was used as the source material for chemicals which caused EROD induction. The fraction was purified by solid-phase extraction techniques and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The majority of the EROD activity was found in the moderately nonpolar region of the chromatogram (K sub(ow) = 4.6 to 5.1).
#|Burton-D.T.; Tieman-D.M.  Evaluation of Biomonitoring Systems for Assessment of Contaminated Water and Sediments at U.S. Army Installations - Continuous Acute Toxicity Biomonitoring of Aberdeen Proving Ground-Edgewood Area Old O-Field Groundwater Treatment Facility Effluent. Annual rept. 31 Jul 95-30 Jul 96. Maryland Univ., Queenstown. Wye Research and Education Center. 30 Aug 96. 184p.  Old O-Field is a hazardous waste disposal site at the Aberdeen Proving Ground-Edgewood Area, Aberdeen, Maryland, which has contaminated the underlying groundwater. The contaminated groundwater is collected and treated at the Old O-Field Groundwater Treatment Facility (GwTF) with subsequent discharge to the Gunpowder River. An in-line automated fish ventilatory biomonitoring system was installed at the GWTF to monitor the effluent for unexpected toxicity as it is discharged. A number of out of control events (stressed fish) occurred during the study (June 23, 1995 to March 31, 1996). The out of control responses occurred from (1) changes in effluent water quality; (2) power failures; or (3) a proportional diluter failure. No acute toxicity attributable to the GWTF effluent quality occurred during the study.
#|Butler, D. L., Krueger, R. P., Campbell Osmundson, B., & Jensen, E. G.  Reconnaissance investigation of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in the Dolores Project Area, southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah, 1990-91.  1994. Water Resources Investigations Report: 94:4041. 126 pp. Water, bottom-sediment, and biota samples were collected in 1990-91 to identify water-quality problems associated with irrigation drainage in the Dolores Project area. Concentrations of cadmium, mercury, and selenium in some water samples exceeded aquatic-life criteria. Selenium was associated with irrigation drainage from the Dolores Project, but other trace elements may be transported into the area in the irrigation water supply. Selenium concentrations exceeded the chronic aquatic-life criterion in water samples from lower McElmo Creek and Navajo Wash, which drain the Montezuma Valley, from newly irrigated areas, and from the Mancos River. The maximum selenium concentration in water was 88 micrograms per liter from Navajo Wash. Concentrations of herbicides in water were less than concentrations harmful to aquatic life. Selenium concentrations in four bottom-sediment samples exceeded the baseline concentrations for soils in the Western United States. The largest selenium concentrations in biota were in samples from Navajo Wash, from newly irrigated areas north of the Montezuma Valley, and from the Mancos River basin. Selenium concentrations in aquatic-invertebrate samples from the newly irrigated areas exceeded a guideline for food items consumed by fish and wildlife. Selenium concentrations in whole-body suckers were larger in the San Juan River downstream from the Dolores Project than upstream from the project at Four Corners. Selenium concentrations in fathead minnow samples from two sites were at adverse-effect levels. Mercury concentrations in warm-water game fish in reservoirs in the study area may be of concern to human health. Some concentrations of other trace elements exceeded background concentrations, but the concentrations were not toxicologically significant or the toxicologic significance is not known.
#|Camargo, J A.  Performance of a New Ecotoxicological Index to Assess Environmental Impacts on Freshwater Communities.  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology BECTA6 Vol. 44, No. 4, p 529-534, April 1990. If an aquatic organism is not adapted to thrive in an environmental disturbance, its ability to grow, reproduce, or compete in the biological community will be affected negatively, being substituted for another one more resistant and better adapted to environmental stress. The performance of a simple ecotoxicological index to assess environmental impacts produced by man 's activities on freshwater communities was derived by totaling the species deficit index and a new species substitution index. The first index measures the percentage difference between the number of species occurring above and below the disturbance point. The second index measures the species substitution percentage between both places. A sample of the benthic riffle macroinvertebrate community was taken at each of five sampling stations using a cylinder sampler. All samples were preserved in Formalin until their separation, determination , and counting. The following biological parameters and indices were calculated: the number of species or species richness, the organism density, the number of common species, the Margalef 's diversity index, the Shannon 's diversity index, the species substitution index, and the ecotoxicological index. The highest value of the ecotoxicological index corresponded with the smallest diversity because effects of dam and industrial effluent act simultaneously on the benthic macroinvertebrate community at the third sampling station. However, the rank of environmental impact decreased with the distance to disturbance points.  The taxonomic identification of species is perhaps the only and major problem in using this index.
#|Camargo, J A.  The importance of biological monitoring for the ecological risk assessment of freshwater pollution: A case study.  ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 229-238, 1994.  A comparative study of the organic pollution generated by trout farm effluent on its downstream ecosystem was conducted in the middle reaches of a Galician stream within the province of Lugo (northern Spain). Physicochemical and biological surveys were undertaken during the spring of 1988. The physicochemical monitoring showed a slight pollution. Total hardness, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, organic matter, sulfate, sodium, pH, and chloride exhibited similar values along the study area, whereas concentrations of total phosphorus increased significantly downstream from the fish farm outlet. In contrast, the biological monitoring (based on benthic macroinvertebrates) showed more important pollution, diversity, biotic, and similarity parameters decreasing markedly downstream from the trout farm. In addition, the pristine trophic structure of the macrobenthic community was altered: scrapers and shredders being the macroinvertebrate functional feeding groups most adversely affected by the fish farm effluent. This difference in pollution degree between the physicochemical monitoring and the biological monitoring was probably due to the reduction in the carrying capacity of the trout farm and the decrease in the trout feeding during the period of the field survey. It is concluded that both physicochemical and biological monitorings are needed for proper ecological risk assessment of freshwater pollution in order to provide the maximum information for adequate protection of aquatic ecosystems.
#|Camargo, J A. Comparing levels of pollutants in regulated rivers with safe concentrations of pollutants for fishes: A case study.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 81-90, 1996. The present study compares levels of fluoride ion (F-) in the regulated Duraton River receiving an industrial effluent with safe concentrations (SCs) of F- for brown trout (Salmo trutta) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to evaluate the responsibility of fluoride pollution for the absence of trout populations downstream from the effluent. SCs for each trout species were estimated using the multifactor probit analysis software on acute mortality data. Differential releases from the dam caused short-term flow fluctuations at S-1 (between dam and effluent), S-2, S-3 and S-4 sampling sites (0.1, 2.2 and 7.3 km downstream from the effluent). Because of this, fluoride concentrations exhibited a temporal variation over a one-day period downstream from the industrial effluent the highest and lowest concentrations (pm F-) were 0.11 and 0.10 at S-1, 19.6 and 1.67 at S-2, 7.02 and 0.43 at S-3, and 2.98 and 0.52 at S-4. The mean F-concentration at the industrial effluent was 25.3 plus or minus 3.9 pm. SCs (infinite hours LC0.01s) of F- for rainbow trout and brown trout were respectively 5.14 and 7.49 pm. Comparisons between levels of F- in the Duraton River and SCs for trout species apparently indicate that fluoride pollution was a minor factor in determining the absence of trout populations downstream from the industrial effluent. It is concluded that intensive (24 hours) sampling surveys of pollutant levels should be undertaken in regulated rivers with pollution sources (e.g., industrial effluent) to evaluate appropriately the real influence of pollutants on freshwater organisms.
#|Camoin,-G.; Casanova,-J.; Rouchy,-J.-M.; Blanc-Valleron,-M.-M.; Deconinck TI:  Environmental controls on perennial and ephemeral carbonate lakes: the central palaeo-Andean Basin of Bolivia during Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary times. SEDIMENT.-GEOL. 1997 vol. 113, no. 1-2, pp. 1-26.
#|Campbell, K R.  Silver accumulation in three species of fish (family: Centrarchidae) in stormwater treatment ponds.  FLORIDA SCIENTIST vol. 57, no. 1-2, pp. 34-41, 1994.  Redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), and bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) were collected from stormwater ponds and natural lakes and ponds in the Greater Orlando area and analyzed for silver in order to determine: (1) if fish that live in stormwater treatment ponds bioaccumulate significant concentrations of silver and (2) if differences in silver concentrations between species with different foraging strategies occur. Redear sunfish from stormwater ponds (0.458 mg/kg) contained significantly higher (p<0.005) concentrations of silver than fish from control sites (0.001 mg/kg). Largemouth bass and bluegill collected from stormwater ponds (0.419 mg/kg 0.0278 mg/kg, respectively) contained higher concentrations of silver than those from control sites (0.0418 mg/kg  0.0014 mg/kg, respectively), but the differences were not statistically significant. No significant (p<0.05) correlations between silver concentration and length and weight of any of the three fish species were found.
#|Campbell, P M ; Kruzynski, G M ; Birtwell, I K ; Devlin, R H.  Quantitation of dose-dependent increases in CYP1A1 messenger RNA levels in juvenile chinook salmon exposed to treated bleached-kraft mill effluent using two field sampling techniques.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1119-1123, 1996.  Increases in hepatic CYP1A1 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels were quantitated, using a reverse-transcriptase competitive polymerase-chain-reaction assay, from juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) following exposure to treated bleached-kraft mill effluent (BKME). Two tissue preservation techniques, alcohol fixation and freezing, were compared and both found to be valid, although absolute values obtained differed between the methods. The results of this study show that juvenile chinook respond with a dose-dependent induction of CYP1A1 mRNA to levels of treated BKME found under winter, low-flow conditions downstream of pulp mills in the Fraser River, British Columbia, Canada. The validation of alcohol fixation as a sampling technique for studies on mRNA levels improves the ease of field sampling and increases the feasibility of using CYP1A1 mRNA level as a bioindicator of exposure of fish to specific chemical contaminants.
#|Cantafio, A W ; Hagen, K D ; Lewis, G E ; Bledsoe, T L ; Nunan, K M ; Macy, J M.  Pilot-scale selenium bioremediation of San Joaquin drainage water with Thauera selenatis.  APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY vol. 62, no. 9, pp. 3298-3303, 1996.  This report describes a simple method for the bioremediation of selenium from agricultural drainage water. A medium-packed pilot-scale biological reactor system, inoculated with the selenate-respiring bacterium Thauera selenatis was constructed at the Panoche Water District, San Joaquin Valley, Calif. The reactor was used to treat drainage water (7.6 liters/min) containing both selenium and nitrate.  Acetate (5 mM) was the carbon source-electron donor reactor feed.  Selenium oxyanion concentrations (selenate plus selenite) in the drainage water were reduced by 98%, to an average of 12 plus or minus 9 mu g/liter. Frequently (47% of the sampling days), reactor effluent concentrations of less than 5 mu g/liter were achieved.  Denitrification was also observed in this system nitrate and nitrite concentrations in the drainage water were reduced to 0.1 and 0.01 mM, respectively (98% reduction). Analysis of the reactor effluent showed that 91 to 96% of the total selenium recovered was elemental selenium 97.9% of this elemental selenium could be removed with Nalmet 8072, a new, commercially available precipitant-coagulant. Widespread use of this system (in the Grasslands Water District) could reduce the amount of selenium deposited in the San Joaquin River from 7,000 to 140 lb (ca. 3,000 to 60 kg)/year.
#|Canton, S. P., & Derveer, W. D. V.  1997.  Selenium toxicity to aquatic life: an argument for sediment-based water quality criteria.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry vol. 16 (6): 1255.
#|Cappel, R. (1995). Update on silver research and regulation.  Proceedings of the IS&T Annual Conference 1995. Soc Imaging Sci Technol, Springfield, VA, USA. p 175-177. This paper presents an update of the Silver Research Program on silver's toxicity, environmental fate, transport, and measurement in natural waters, sediments, soils, and sludges. To date, the program has resulted in substantial changes in the silver regulations. EPA has reversed three major silver regulations, the 1990 Draft Silver Criteria Document, the proposed silver standards in the National Toxic Rule, and the proposed silver standards in the Great Lakes Water Quality Initiatives. In addition, EPA has deleted the Primary Drinking Water Quality Standards, both of which has to be done before silver could be proposed for removal from the hazardous wastes listing. EPA has also encouraged the states that adopted their proposed standards to reconsider them. Finally, EPA included silver in a group of metals establishing new policy of using the dissolved for rather that the total recoverable form in Water Quality Standards.
#|Carder JP; Hoagland KD. Combined effects of alachlor and atrazine on benthic algal communities in artificial streams.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, 1998, V17, N7 (JUL), P1415-1420.  A duplicated factorial approach was used to assess the combined effects of three environmentally realistic levels of alachlor (0.0, 5.0, and 90.0 mu g/L), cross-classified with three environmentally realistic levels of atrazine (0.0, 12.0, and 150.0 mu g/L), on indigenous epipelic algae (mud-dwelling species, characteristic of agricultural streams). The Experiment was conducted in 18 recirculating laboratory streams over a 4-week period. Biovolume of viable algal cells and relative abundance of the six dominant algal species were utilized as experimental endpoints. Community biovolume was impacted throughout the experiment in streams treated with 12.0 and 150.0 mu g/L atrazine and in streams containing 90.0 mu g/L alachlor, but only in samples collected at 4 weeks. The effects of atrazine and alachlor together on algal community biovolume appeared to be additive rather than synergistic. The relative abundance of two dominant algal taxa were impacted in streams treated with alachlor, but only one species remained affected over time. The lack of significant interactions is most likely attributable to the different modes of action of atrazine and alachlor. The additive nature of these two herbicides should be an important consideration in the development of water quality criteria.
#|Carey-J.H.  Recent Canadian studies on the physiological effects of pulp mill effluent on fish. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa (Ontario).  Environment Canada, Ottawa (Ontario). 1993. 21p. In December 1991, the federal government announced a Pulp and Paper Regulatory Package that included regulations on the discharge of biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids and acute toxicity for all pulp and paper mills, as well as placing strict limits on discharges of chlorinated dioxins from pulp and paper mills employing bleaching. During the development of the regulatory package, recent Canadain research confirmed that impacts on wild fish in the receiving environment were associated with the discharge of effluent from Canadian pulp mills. The federal government has set a high priority on identifying the compounds that are responsible for the damage detected in wild fish and on identifying pulping or waste treatment processes that eliminate these effects. This document reviews the data that prompted the federal government studies, and outlines the recent, significant findings on effects of pulp mill discharges in Canadian environments.
#|Carpenter S R; Caraco N F; Correll D L; Howarth R W; Sharpley A N; Smith V H.  Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications  8 (3):p559-568 Aug., 1998.  Agriculture and urban activities are major sources of phosphorus and nitrogen to aquatic ecosystems. Atmospheric deposition further contributes as a source of N. These nonpoint inputs of nutrients are difficult to measure and regulate because they derive from activities dispersed over wide areas of land and are variable in time due to effects of weather. In aquatic ecosystems, these nutrients cause diverse problems such as toxic algal blooms, loss of oxygen, fish kills, loss of biodiversity (including species important for commerce and recreation), loss of aquatic plant beds and coral reefs, and other problems. Nutrient enrichment seriously degrades aquatic ecosystems and impairs the use of water for drinking, industry, agriculture, recreation, and other purposes. Based on our review of the scientific literature, we are certain that (1) eutrophication is a widespread problem in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and coastal oceans, caused by overenrichment with P and N; (2) nonpoint pollution, a major source of P and N to surface waters of the United States, results primarily from agriculture and urban activity, including industry; (3) inputs of P and N to agriculture in the form of fertilizers exceed outputs in produce in the United States and many other nations; (4) nutrient flows to aquatic ecosystems are directly related to animal stocking densities, and under high livestock densities, manure production exceeds the needs of crops to which the manure is applied; (5) excess fertilization and manure production cause a P surplus to accumulate in soil, some of which is transported to aquatic ecosystems; and (6) excess fertilization and manure production on agricultural lands create surplus N, which is mobile in many soils and often leaches to downstream aquatic ecosystems, and which can also volatilize to the atmosphere, redepositing elsewhere and eventually reaching aquatic ecosystems. If current practices continue, nonpoint pollution of surface waters is virtually certain to increase in the future. Such an outcome is not inevitable, however, because a number of technologies, land use practices, and conservation measures are capable of decreasing the flow of nonpoint P and N into surface waters. From our review of the available scientific information, we are confident that: (1) nonpoint pollution of surface waters with P and N could be reduced by reducing surplus nutrient flows in agricultural systems and processes, reducing agricultural and urban runoff by diverse methods, and reducing N emissions from fossil fuel burning; and (2) eutrophication can be reversed by decreasing input rates of P and N to aquatic ecosystems, but rates of recovery are highly variable among water bodies. Often, the eutrophic state is persistent, and recovery is slow.
#|Carriker, R.R. Federal environmental policy: a summary overview. Lexington, Ky. : Southern Agricultural Economics Association, 1993.  Journal of agricultural and applied economics. July 1996. v. 28 (1)  p. 99-107, 126-134. Paper presented at the Southern Agricultural Economics Association, Annual Meeting, February 3-7, 1996, Greensboro, North Carolina. Discussion by W.M. Park, p. 126-129 and P.E. Norris, p.130-134. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which was signed into law on January1, 1970, has come to be regarded as the first major piece offederal legislation to call for comprehensive attention to environmental concerns in the United States. During the two decades following enactment of NEPA, Congress adopted and then refined major legislation on nearly every aspect of environmental quality concerns:  air pollution, water pollution, drinking water quality, hazardous waste management, wildlife protection, pesticide use, and several related problem areas. Current arguments for environmental regulatory reform are a phase in the continuing evolution of this body of federal environmental policy.
#|Carter L F. Porter S D .  Trace-element accumulation by Hygrohypnum ochraceum in the upper Rio Grande Basin, Colorado and New Mexico, USA.  Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry 16(12). 1997. 2521-2528.  Accumulation of 12 trace elements by transplanted aquatic bryophytes (Hygrohypnum ochraceum) was determined at 13 sites in the Rio Grande and tributary streams in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The purposes of the study were to determine the spatial distribution of trace elements in relation to land-use practices in the upper Rio Grande Basin, compare accumulation rates of metals in bryophytes at sites contaminated by trace elements, and evaluate transplanted aquatic bryophytes as a tool for examining the bioavailability of trace elements in relation to concentrations in water and bed sediment.  Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in bryophytes, water, and bed sediment were significantly higher at sites that receive drainage from mining areas than at sites near agricultural or urban activities. Concentrations of most trace elements were lower in a tributary stream below an urban source than at sites near mining or agricultural use.  Concentrations of Cu and Zn in bryophytes correlated with concentrations in water and bed sediment. In addition, bryophyte concentrations of As, Cd, and Pb correlated with concentrations in bed sediment. Transplanted bryophytes can provide an indication of bioavailability. Rates of accumulation were related to the magnitude of ambient trace-element concentrations; maximal uptake occurred during the first 10 d of exposure. Trace-element concentrations in transplanted bryophytes could potentially be used to predict water and sediment concentrations that represent an integration of conditions over short to intermediate lengths of time, rather than instantaneous conditions as measured using water samples.
#|CASTRO, JANINE MICHELLE.  STREAM CLASSIFICATION IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST:  METHODOLOGIES, REGIONAL ANALYSES, AND APPLICATIONS (SALMON, RCNR, BANKFULL, FLUVIAL).  OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY.  PHD.  1997, pp: 104.
#|CDM Federal Programs Corp., Oak Ridge, TN and U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Mercury issues related to NPDES and the CERCLA watershed project at the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant.  Report No.: Y/ER/MS-4, Nov 96, 32p.  The purpose of this document is to present the current understanding of the issues and options surrounding compliance with the current National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit conditions. This is a complicated issue that directly impacts, and will be directly impacted by, ongoing CERCLA activities in Lower East Fork Poplar Creek and the Clinch River/Poplar Creek.  It may be necessary to reconstitute the whole and combine actions and decisions regarding the entire creek (origin to confluence with the Clinch River) to develop a viable long-term strategy that meets regulatory goals and requirements as well as those of DOE's 10-Year Plan and the new watershed management permitting approach. This document presents background information on the Reduction of Mercury in Plant Effluents (RMPE) and NPDES programs insofar as it is needed to understand the issues and options. A tremendous amount of data has been collected to support the NPDES/RMPE and CERCLA programs. These data are not presented, although they may be referenced and conclusions based on them may be presented, as necessary, to support discussion of the options.
#|CHANG AC; PAGE AL; ASANO T; HESPANHOL I.  DEVELOPING HUMAN HEALTH-RELATED CHEMICAL GUIDELINES FOR RECLAIMED WASTE-WATER IRRIGATION.  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1996, V33, N10-1, P463-472.  We examined the methodology of developing globally applicable human health-related chemical guidelines of using wastewater for crop irrigation. Two approaches may be used to develop pollutant loading guidelines: (a) preventing pollutant accumulation in waste receiving soil and (b) maximizing soil's capacity to assimilate, attenuate, and detoxify harmful chemicals. Pollutant loading rates based on the first approach are in agreement with the fundamental principle of maintaining ecological balances in soil. But numerical limits usually are very stringent and it is difficult for communities to meet these requirements. Recommendations derived with the second approach represent the maximum permissible loadings beyond which pollutant levels in the soil may be harmful to the exposed population. A method employing the second approach was evaluated. Preliminary pollutant loading limits for land application of wastewater are derived by considering the food chain transfer of pollutants via intake of grain, vegetable, root/tuber, and fruit grown on wastewater-affected soils.
#|Changming, Ye.  Modelling of Lijiang River.  J Environ Sci-China  v6, n2, p234(10) Jun 94.  A one-dimensional mathematical model is used to examine the DO profile in the Lijiang River, China, which has been polluted by domestic effluents and effluents from paper mills and fertilizer plants. The model considers six parameters: BOD, aeration, photosynthesis and respiration by algae, nitrification, and water temperature. The model is used to determine the pollutant load that can be sustained by the river and still maintain the DO level above a standard level. Modeling results suggest that, to maintain a DO of 4 mg/l, the effluent load from the Guilin City must be treated more effectively. For a DO standard of 6 mg/l, the BOD must be reduced by 15% over current levels.
#|CHAPMAN JC.  THE ROLE OF ECOTOXICITY TESTING IN ASSESSING WATER QUALITY.  AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 1995, V20, N1 (MAR), P20-27.  Ecotoxicology provides a basis for making decisions on the likely impact of a chemical or effluent on the aquatic environment. It encompasses laboratory ecotoxicity tests of various types to explore relationships between exposure and effect under controlled laboratory conditions, through to studies of the effects of chemicals or effluents under a variety of ecological conditions in complex field ecosystems. This paper will focus on the value of laboratory ecotoxicity tests as a tool in assessing water quality. Laboratory tests are valuable (i) in deriving and assessing water quality criteria, (ii) for screening and ranking chemicals and predicting their hazard and risk, (iii) for establishing dilution levels of chemicals or effluents prior to discharge into water bodies, (iv) in determining cause-effect relationships in postimpact studies, acid (v) for establishing and validating field bioindicators. Both the advantages and deficiencies of using ecotoxicological testing for these purposes are illustrated from research with pesticides, metals and sediments. Use of a combination of both laboratory- and field-based ecotoxicology studies is important togain a full understanding of the effects of chemicals at the ecosystem level.
#|CHAPMAN PF, CRANE M, WILES J, NOPPERT F, & MCINDOE E. (1996). IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF STATISTICS IN REGULATORY ECOTOXICITY TESTS.  ECOTOXICOLOGY,V5, N3, P169-186. The results of an international workshop on the use of statistics in regulatory ecotoxicology are presented. There are currently many errors of omission in the recommendations on statistical analysis given in test guidelines. These are identified and advice is given on how to incorporate best statistical practice. The use of the no observed effect concentration (NOEC) as a summary statistic is questioned, and an alternative is suggested. Several areas of research that would resolve uncertainty in the design and analysis of ecotoxicity tests are also identified.
#|Chapman, P. J.; Reynolds, B.; Wheater, H. S.  Hydrochemical changes along stormflow pathways in a small moorland headwater catchment in Mid-Wales, UK.  Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) vol. 151 (2/4):  p.241-265, 1993.  A hydrogeochemical investigation of a small moorland catchment in Mid-Wales assessed the importance of chemical changes along stormflow pathways to stream water chemistry.  Flow from a network of ephemeral, natural soil pipes was identified as a major source of solute-rich water to the stream during storm events. Water was sampled during five events, of different rainfall magnitudes and antecedent conditions. Samples were collected at several points within the pipe network, along the water pathway from a major pipe outlet to the head of the stream and within the stream channel. There were significant changes in the chemical composition of water along the flow pathways to the stream; antecedent conditions, size of event and season were important in determining the magnitude of these changes. Between the outlet of the main pipe and the stream channel, concn of Ca, Mg and Si increased, whereas concn of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), Fe, H- and Al species decreased. The response of K and NO3-N varied with season.  Concn of Na, Cl and SO4 varied little along the pathway.  The most significant change in chemical composition was the release of Ca and Mg and the associated consumption of H+ within the drift material at the head of the stream.  This reaction has important consequences for the degree to which the stream is buffered against inputs of acidic pipe water and hence for the acidity of the stream water.  Solutes whose concn and speciation are controlled by pH are also affected.  These results emphasize the significance of spatial variability within the catchment soils and the importance of chemical and biological reactions along water pathways in determining stream water chemistry.
#|Chapman-G.; Anderson-B.; Bailer-A.; Baird-R.; Berger-R.  Discussion Synopsis: Effluent Toxicity Testing Methods and Appropriate Endpoints. (Chapter 3). Symposium paper. Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR.  Miami Univ., FL.  Los Angeles City Bureau of Sanitation, CA. 1995. 37p. This paper is a discussion of issues relating to the appropriate selection of endpoints (biological and statistical) for current Whole Effluent Toxicity (WET) testing methods with emphasis on the more contentious chronic tests. This workgroup also discussed the utility and information value of recent methods for conducting WET tests. The chapter covers background and history, biological endpoint issues and recommendations, statistical endpoint issues, and overall conclusions and recommendations.
#|Charoy, C. P., Janssen, C. R., Persoone, G., & Clement, P. (1995). The swimming behaviour of Brachionus calyciflorus (rotifer) under toxic stress. 1. The use of automated trajectometry for determining sublethal effects of chemicals.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 271-282. Changes in the locomotory behaviour of the freshwater rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus were used as sublethal indicators of toxic stress. To that end, the swimming behaviour of this rotifer was analysed using an automated tracking system. The swimming speed (temporal factor), the swimming sinuosity (spatial factor), and the periods of swimming were measured and the influence of four chemicals, each representing a distinct chemical class (copper, pentachlorophenol, lindane and 3,4-dichloroaniline), on the rotifer's swimming characteristics were examined. The three test parameters exhibit different sensitivities depending on the chemical tested. The 2-h EC sub(50)s obtained with the behavioural test were of the same order of magnitude as the 24-h LC sub(50)s resulting from conventional acute toxicity tests with the same test species. This potential use of behavioural test criteria for sublethal toxicity testing with rotifers is briefly discussed.
#|CHEN J, LIAO Y, ZHAO Y, WANG L, LU G, & ZHAO T. (1996). QUANTITATIVE STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY-RELATIONSHIPS AND MIXTURE TOXICITY STUDIES OF HETEROCYCLIC NITROGEN-COMPOUNDS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY,V57, N1, P77-83.
#|Chen W, Tan S K, & Tay J H.  Distribution, fractional composition and release of sediment-bound heavy metals in tropical reservoirs.  Water Air and Soil Pollution, 92 (3-4). 1996.  273-287. The concentrations of heavy metals in bottom sediments from urban receiving waters, Kranji Reservoir and MacRitchie Reservoir in Singapore, were investigated. Distribution of the heavy metals in the bottom sediment, interstitial water and overlying water was analysed. The concentration of heavy metals in the interstitial water was found to be significantly high and exceed the water quality criteria by three to eleven times. The partitioning coefficient shows that the solubility of the metals are in the order: Mn gt Zn gt Cu gt Ph gt Fe gt Al. Fractional composition of heavy metals in the sediments was determined using sequential extraction process. The results show that Cu was largely complexed by organics, 74% of Zn was in easily remobilised fractions, and 36% of Pb was in the easily reducible fraction and 47% in carbonate and ion-exchangeable fractions. Release of sediment-bound metals was studied. The results indicate that, besides pH and redox, the sediment buffering capacity is an important parameter affecting the remobilization of heavy metals from sediment.
#|Chhaya, J ; Thaker, J ; Mittal, R ; Nuzhat, S ; Mansuri, A P ; Kundu, R.  Influence of textile dyeing and printing industry effluent on ATPases in liver, brain, and muscle of mudskipper, Periophthalmus dipes.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 58, no. 5, pp.793-800, 1997.  Dyeing and printing industry effluents are known to be potent inhibitors of various enzymes including the membrane bound ATPases. The membrane bound ATPase system is responsible for, among others, movements of ions across membrane. The experimental animal of the present study Periophthalmus dipes, a euryhaline teleost inhabiting the coastal mudflats, is an important constituent of the coastal food chain and is occasionally consumed by the local fisherfolks. Therefore, in the present study an attempt has been made to assess the dose and duration dependent toxicity of dyeing and printing industry effluent on a few ion dependent ATPases in liver, brain and muscular tissues of P. dipes.
#|Chisholm, E A ; Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R.  Metabolic clearance of caffeine as an indicator of induced MFO activity in fish exposed to pulp mill effluent.  36TH CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR GREAT LAKES RESEARCH, JUNE 4-10, 1993. p.147. 1993.  Fish which are exposed to pulp mill effluent exhibit numerous changes in physiology and whole organism responses, including induction of hepatic mixed-function oxygenase (MFO) activity. Studies of mammals have shown that MFO activity is the rate limiting factor in the metabolic clearance of caffeine. Field experiments were carried out on white sucker (Catostomus commersoni), exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent in Jackfish Bay, Lake Superior, and from the adjacent Mountain Bay reference site, to determine if an increase in the rate of depuration of caffeine could be used as an indicator of induced MFO activity in fish. The fish were dosed i.p. with 5 mg/Kg body weight of caffeine, followed by repeated bleeding over a six hour period. The level of caffeine was measured in the serum by HPLC and the resultant clearance rates were compared to the actual EROD activities, measured directly in the livers. The use of metabolic clearance rates of caffeine in fish as a surrogate for direct MFO measurements may provide a powerful experimental tool.
#|Christman, J N ; Beverly, M D.  Storm water permitting.  JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITTING vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 3-24, 1995.  Until October 1, 1994, Section 402(p)(1) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) prohibited EPA from requiring National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits for all but a few (primarily industrial and certain municipal) dischargers of only storm water. Even though this moratorium has passed, EPA has not yet issued permitting regulations for these nonindustrial and (mostly) nonmunicipal dischargers of storm water. In an October 18, 1994, memorandum, EPA indicated that all storm-water-only dischargers without permits are now technically in violation of the CWA. How EPA will ultimately define the universe of dischargers requiring a permit is unclear. Although EPA says that it will not take enforcement action against those storm water dischargers formerly subject to the moratorium, they are still subject to citizen suits. Thus, with the status of the "Category 11" exemption for light industry unsettled and Congress considering reform of statutory storm water provisions, uncertainty prevails for many industrial and commercial point source dischargers of storm water.
#|Clark, M. L., & Sadler, W. J. (1996).  Occurrence of selenium and mercury in surface water, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming.  Water Resources Investigations Report 96: 4159.  14 pp. Physical and chemical data were collected in May and August, 1995, from an irrigated area of the Wind River Federal Irrigation Project, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming. Surface-water samples were collected from irrigation drains, ponds and streams in the Sharp Nose Draw and Mill Creek drainage areas, and from the Little Wind River. These samples were analyzed for selenium and mercury, as well as other selected inorganic constituents. Of the 13 samples collected in May, 6 had selenium concentrations greater than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) chronic aquatic-life criterion of 5 mg/L (micrograms per liter) and one exceeded the aquatic-life acute criteria of 20 mg/Lake Samples with selenium concentrations exceeding aquatic criteria were collected from Sharp Nose Draw and the Mill Creek drainage areas. Selenium concentrations in all 12 samples collected in August were less than the laboratory minimum reporting level of 5 mg/Lake The large selenium concentrations were associated with large dissolved solids concentrations that occur prior to the irrigation season when accumulated salts are flushed to drainages through ground water and natural precipitation. Mercury concentrations were less than the laboratory minimum reporting level of 0.1 mg/L for all samples except one collected in May that had a concentration of 0.3 mg/Lake This concentration was larger than the aquatic-life chronic criterion of 0.012 mg/L established by the USEPA, but less than the aquatic-life acute criterion of 2.4 mg/L for mercury established by the USEPA.
#|Clarke, Sharon E; Bryce, Sandra A. Hierarchical subdivisions of the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains ecoregions, Oregon and Washington. U S Forest Service General Technical Report PNW  0 (395):pI-III, 1-115 Sept., 1997. This document presents two spatial scales of a hierarchical, ecoregional framework and provides a connection to both larger and smaller scale ecological classifications. The two spatial scales are subregions (1:250,000) and landscape-level ecoregions (1:100,000), or Level IV and Level V ecoregions. Level IV ecoregions were developed by the Environmental Protection Agency because the resolution of national-scale ecoregions provided insufficient detail to meet the needs of state agencies for establishing biocriteria, reference sites, and attainability goals for water-quality regulation. For this project, two ecoregions-the Columbia Plateau and the Blue Mountains were subdivided into more detailed Level IV ecoregions. Similarly, the finer scale landscape-level ecoregions (Level V) were developed to address local land management issues. The landscape-level ecoregions for northeast Oregon and southeast Washington were created specifically to address the issue of anadromous fish habitat. Their delineation, however, employed landscape information similar to that used in other levels of the ecoregion hierarchy, thereby indicating the potential for general application of these regions to both terrestrial and aquatic research questions. The study area for the landscape-level ecoregions was defined by contiguous watersheds within the ecoregions of the Columbia Plateau and Blue Mountains to merge the ecoregional information with units corresponding to fish distribution.
#|CLEMENTS WH, & KIFFNEY PM. (1994).  INTEGRATED LABORATORY AND FIELD APPROACH FOR ASSESSING IMPACTS OF HEAVY-METALS AT THE ARKANSAS RIVER, COLORADO.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, V13, N3, P397-404. This research employed an integrated laboratory and field approach lo assess effects of heavy metals at the Arkansas River, a Colorado stream impacted by historic mining operations. Ambient metal levels, chronic toxicity, metal bioaccumulation by benthic organisms, and benthic community structure were examined at stations located upstream and downstream from California Gulch (CG), a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund site near Leadville, Colorado. Although each approach demonstrated effects of metals from CG, important differences among approaches were observed. Ambient metal concentrations and chronic toxicity tests conducted with Ceriodaphnia dubia indicated reduced water quality at upstream and downstream stations. Because of temporal variability in metal levels, water samples collected for chronic toxicity tests did not reflect average exposure conditions. Instream monitoring of benthic communities was necessary to characterize metal impacts at the Arkansas River, but this approach had limitations. Levels of metals in periphyton and benthic invertebrates were significantly elevated at stations downstream from CG. Variation in metal levels among taxa and the absence of some taxa from some stations may limit the use of bioaccumulation studies for monitoring metal impacts. Benthic community structure was altered downstream from CG, but some metrics (e.g., species richness, abundance) were not affected by heavy metals because of the replacement of sensitive taxa by tolerant taxa. Because each of the approaches employed in this study provided different information on the degree of metal impacts, we recommend an integrated approach for assessing effects of metals on streams.
#|Cobb, G.P.; Jeffers, R.; Waldrop, V.C.; Bills, T.; Forsythe, B.; Wenholz.  Effect of chloride, hardness and dissolved organic carbon on silver solubility in aquatic toxicity tests.  M.; Saul, B.; La Point, T.W.; Klaine, S.J.; Andren, A.W.; Bober, T.W. (eds.).  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA) 25-28 Aug 1996, pp. 69-78.  Silver solubility was measured over a four day period during toxicity tests.  In these systems, silver, water hardness, chloride, and dissolved organic carbon were controlled. Total silver and silver that passed through a 0.45 mu m filter were measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry.  Hardness had no observable effect on silver solubility. DOC had pronounced effects on silver solubility.  Apparently DOC bound the silver, keeping it suspended in solution, but did not allow passage through 0.45 mu m filters.  The DOC was most noticeable factor affecting soluble silver concentrations when added silver was 2-10 ng/ml. When 20 ng/ml silver was added to test systems, chloride and DOC caused reductions in silver solubility which were similar in magnitude. Chloride had a larger effect on silver solubility than did DOC in solutions receiving 40 ng/ml of silver.
#|Coburn, J.  Cleaning up urban stormwater: The storm drain stenciling approach (or getting to the nonpoint source). JOURNAL OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 312-316, 1994. Urban stormwater runoff is receiving increased attention from the US EPA, which in 1990 issued the final rule to implement Section 402 (P) of the Clean Water Act. This rule requires cities over 100,000 in population to obtain stormwater permits under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Like all kinds of non-point source pollution, urban stormwater pollution comes from many "diffuse" sources rather than a single "point source" like the wastewater discharge pipe of a factory. While many approaches are being tried by municipalities, one of the least costly and most effective ways to reduce nonpoint source pollution is storm drain stenciling. This approach addresses urban water pollution where it often starts -in the storm drain system of our communities.
#|COCHRAN, MARK CRAIG.  WATER QUALITY OF EAST TEXAS STREAMS: FORESTED VERSUS PASTURED WATERSHEDS RECEIVING POULTRY LITTER APPLICATIONS.  M.S.F., 1996.  Water quality and stream discharge were monitored at six sites on two Nacogdoches County, Texas streams over a nine month period (March-November 1995). Three sites were located in forested watersheds and the other three sites were downstream of pastured watersheds surface-applied with poultry litter, a potential nonpoint source of pollution. Stream water samples were analyzed for Ca, K, Mg, Na. NO$\sb3$-N, TKN, PO$\sb4$-P, TP, TSS, pH, anddissolved oxygen. A rapid bioassessment was conducted to assess aquatic life stream conditions. Half of the 273 stream samples had nitrate-nitrogen concentrations greater than 0.30 mg L$\sp{-1},$ high enough to support excessive aquatic plant growth, but were below the USEPA drinking water standard (10.0 mg L$\sp{-1}).$ However, almost 90% of samples had extremely low phosphate-phosphorus concentrations ($<$0.008 mg L$\sp{-1}),$ which may act as the limiting factor to prevent eutrophic conditions. Other parameters analyzed were within standards recommended by state and federal agencies. Benthic macroinvertebrate species intolerant of stressful conditions were plentiful, indicating good water quality in these streams. Current land management practices appear to have no adverse effects on water quality in the study watersheds.
#|Cockman, Joneen S.  Ephemeral drainages in the southwestern United States : a literature review.  Las Cruces, NM : Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico State University, 1997.  Research report / New Mexico State University, Agricultural Experiment Station ; 720 Research report (New Mexico State University. Agricultural Experiment Station) ; 720.
#|Cody, R P ; Bortone, S A.  Masculinization of mosquitofish as an indicator of exposure to kraft mill effluent.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 429-436, 1997.  Masculinization (i.e., arrhenoidy) of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) from a small stream receiving kraft mill effluent (KME) in northwest Florida has been previously documented (Howell et al. 1980). Responses to their exposure to KME include: precocial maturation of males, incorporated of elements of male reproductive behavior into the female behavioral repertoire, and acquisition of gonopodium-like anal fins in females. Bortone et al. (1980) suggested these responses may be used as a potential bioindicator of KME exposure. The latter characteristic (i.e., gonopodium formation as evidenced by the elongation of the anal fin) remains the most conspicuous indication of exposure to KME among mosquitofish. Moreover, a simple estimate of the degree of masculinization may be obtained from a comparison of the anal fin lengths of unexposed and exposed female mosquitofish (Drydale and Bortone 1989).
#|Coeck, J. Use of the Abundance/Biomass Method for Comparison of Fish Communities in Regulated and Unregulated Lowland Rivers in Belgium.  Regul Rivers: Res Manag  v8, n1-2, p73(10), May 93.  The abundance/biomass comparison (ABC) method holds that the distribution of numbers of individuals among species behaves differently from the distribution of biomass among species when influenced by pollution-induced disturbance. The ABC method to detect disturbance in river ecosystems caused by river regulation was investigated by applying it to data for fish communities in regulated and nonregulated rivers in Belgium. Results indicated that the method is a good indicator for the disturbance of fish communities because of the loss of physical habitat resulting from river regulation. A significant positive correlation was found between the ABC index and the sum of the scores for pool-riffle and cover for nine unpolluted river sites. As the water quality of a regulated river decreased downstream from the polluting discharge, the ABC index decreased. The calculated ABC index provides more information on the effect of a stressor on the fish community than abundance or biomass alone.
#|Cohen P, Andriamahefa H, Wasson JG.  Towards a regionalization of aquatic habitat: Distribution of mesohabitats at the scale of a large basin.  REGULATED RIVERS-RESEARCH & MANAGEMENT 14: (5) 391-404 SEP-OCT 1998.  Integrated management of aquatic ecosystems is a common concern for water resources managers as well as for researchers. The 1992 French Water Act aims to preserve the biotic and ecological integrity of aquatic ecosystems as part of water management schemes, creating needs for new methodologies for studying these systems. This paper describes the partitioning of the Loire basin (105000 km(2), France) into hydro-ecoregions tested at the mesohabitat scale. The following null hypotheses were examined in the four largest hydro-ecoregions of the basin: (I) differences in mesohabitat types distribution do not exist between regions; (2) the longitudinal structure of mesohabitat types distribution is not different between regions; and (3) the factors governing distribution and longitudinal evolution of mesohabitats distribution are not different between regions.  It was found that the four regions behaved in different ways in terms of distribution and longitudinal evolution of mesohabitats. Valley slope and stream order, the two tested control variables, do not play the same role in each region. If the region contains mainly alluvial rivers, slope and/or order do explain or predict mesohabitat distributions. If the region contains cohesive rivers, these factors do not, or poorly explain, mesohabitat distributions. Since predictive models cannot be developed in most regions for mesohabitat distributions, it is necessary to build descriptive models at the regional scale. In addition to one regional predictive model, this paper provides such results for three regions of the Loire basin.
#|Coimbra, C N ; Graca, M A S ; Cortes, R M.  The effects of a basic effluent on macroinvertebrate community structure in a temporary Mediterranean river.  ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 301-307, 1996.  Macroinvertebrate communities and environmental variables were assessed seasonally for 1 year in a temporary river in South Portugal receiving an effluent with high conductivity, pH, sulphates, nitrates and low oxygen content. The usefulness of the ordination method canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) and the classification method cluster analysis (UPGMA) were examined to evaluate the perturbation.  Macroinvertebrate samples were segregated along the first ordination axis by CCA, which in turn correlated with sulphates and nitrates. CCA produced a two-dimensional distribution of sites similar to the grouping formed by cluster analysis. In general, three or four groups were distinguished. Immediately downstream of the effluent discharge point, only taxa tolerant to low oxygen, high pH and high sulphate and nitrate concentrations were present. Further downstream, sites had a community similar to the reference sampling locations. During flowing conditions the CCA ordination axis 1 was also correlated with several classic measures of water quality (i.e. taxon richness, diversity and biotic indices). In other periods, only the percentage of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (%EPT) and the ratioEPT/(Chironomidae + EPT) were significantly correlated with CCA axis one. This suggests that ordination methods outperform benthic indices in detecting pollution during low flows and segregated polluted from clean/recovered sites in all periods.
#|Conrad, R ; Buechel, C ; Wilhelm, C ; Arsalane, W ; Berkaloff, C ; Duval, J C.  Changes in yield of in-vivo fluorescence of chlorophyll a as a tool for selective herbicide monitoring.  JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYCOLOGY vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 505-516, 1993.  Triazines and derivatives of phenylurea, which are often found in outdoor water samples, induce specific changes in the yield of the in-vivo chlorophyll a-fluorescence of PSII. These changes are correlated quantitatively with the concentration of the herbicides and can therefore be used to set-up a low-price monitor system. In order to detect selectively the herbicide-sensitive part of the fluorescence emission a pulse amplitude modulated fluorimeter was used. The bioassay system was optimised with respect to test organism, growing and measuring conditions. The relationship between fluorescence yield and herbicide concentrations were experimentally determined for the triazines atrazine and simazine and the phenylurea herbicide DCMU and mathematically fitted (r = 0.99). The I sub(50)-values were 0.9 mu M for DCMU, 2.2 mu M for simazine and 3.3 mu M for atrazine. The detection limit of about 0.5 mu M clearly shows that the sensitivity of this bioassay system is too low to reach the requirements of the drinking water regulation. However, due to its insensitivity against complex water matrices, there is good hope to combine this fluorometric bioassay with a potent herbicide preconcentration method likea solid-phase extraction procedure.
#|Constable, J., Divakarla, R., & Grace, A. (1993). Wastewater Management in the Chemical Industry.  15th Federal Convention, Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Volume 3.  Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, April 18-23, 1993, p 631-634. The ICI Australia (ICIA) approach to wastewater management is discussed. In the past, Cleaner Production initiatives have enabled most ICI sites to comply with wastewater discharge criteria. However, with the announcement of ambitious environmental objectives in 1990, including a 50% reduction in waste by 1995, systematic means for identifying and implementing Cleaner Production are required. For existing plants, this entails development and implementation of a Wastewater Management Plan. For new plants, emphasis on waste reduction during initial process design is required. Case studies involving acrylates and ammonium nitrate manufacturing facilities are discussed.
#|COOPER DC; COPELAND BJ. Responses of continuous-series estuarine microecosystems to point-source input variations. ECOL MONOGR; 43 (2). 1973 213-236.  Six continuous-series microecosystems, each containing 5 cells, were constructed to simulate hydrological factors of estuarine regions. Exchange and retention characteristics were adjusted to closely model the hydrological considitons of Trinity Bay, Texas (USA). The metabolic and structural responses of the microecosystem communities to quantitative and qualitative changes in freshwater input were investigated. Primary production and community respiration in the 1st 3 cells of the microecosystems were dependent on both quantity and quality of freshwater input, whereas primary production and community respiration in thesaltwater portions (cells 4,5) of the microecosystems werevirtually independent of the quantity and quality of freshwater input. Metabolism of the freshwater portions of the microecosystems was heterotrophic under normal flow conditions and autotrophic under drought conditions. Addition of an industrial effluent to the freshwater inputs resulted in extensives hifts towards metabolic heterotrophy of the more freshwater portions of the microecosystems. Metabolism of the saltwater cells was heterotrophic under all conditions of freshwater input. The upstream communities wereadapted to a dependency on allochthonous materials input for production and respiration maintenance.  Retarding freshwater input resulted in tying up larger portions of the nutiient pool within the systems in living components.  Addition of industrial effluent increased the community maintenance requirements. Retarding freshwater input acted as anenvironmental stress on the 1st 3 cells of the microecosystems. Magnitudes of production and respiration were significantly lower, and zooplankton standing crops and species diversity decreased significantly. Addition of industrial effluent produced similar effects. Decreased freshwater input rate (primary stress) rendered the receiving communities more susceptible to the industrial effluent addition (secondary stress). The organismal composition of the microecosystems was qualitatively similar but quantitatively dissimilar to the organismal composition of Trinity Bay. Becauseof fundamental similarities in all living systems, the observed responses might be especially representative of those which would occur in Trinity Bay if subjected to similar hydrological alterations.
#|COSSON RP.  HEAVY-METAL INTRACELLULAR BALANCE AND RELATIONSHIP WITH METALLOTHIONEIN INDUCTION IN THE GILLS OF CARP - AFTER CONTAMINATION BY AG, CD, AND HG FOLLOWING PRETREATMENT WITH ZN OR NOT.  BIOLOGICAL TRACE ELEMENT RESEARCH 46: (3) 229-245 DEC 1994.  Determination of metal levels (Cu, Zn, Cd, Ag, Hg) in soluble and insoluble fractions of gill homogenates has been performed after 7 d exposure of carp (Cyprinus carpio) to moderate concentrations of Cd, Ag, and Hg in water. Metallothionein levels have been quantified by polarographic method before and after contamination and a subsequent decontamination phase (7 d). The influence of pretreatment by zinc (7 d) has also been evaluated. Metallothionein level variations have been interpreted as having regard to interrelated flows of metal between subcellular fractions. Special interest has been focused on heat-stable compound (HSC)-bound heavy metal flows within the cytosol, taking in account that MT is the major component of these ligands. Our data showed differences between the ability of metals to bind cytosolic ligands and HSCs, and their respective potency for MT induction in gill. Regardless of pretreatment, mercury gave the highest increase of gill MT, and after the decontamination MT level remained high compared to control.  Cadmium and silver gave similar increases, but a significant difference with control appeared only after the decontamination step with silver, whereas 1 week of contamination was enough for cadmium. Our experimental conditions gave the following order of potency for MT induction in gill: Hg >> Cd > Ag > Zn.
#|Cossu, C.; Doyotte, A.; Jacquin, M. C.; Babut, M.; Exinger, A.; Vasseur, P.  Glutathione Reductase.  Selenium-Dependent Glutathione Peroxidase, Glutathione Levels, and Lipid Peroxidation in Freshwater Bivalves, Unio tumidus, as Biomarkers of Aquatic Contamination in Field Studies.  Ecotoxicol Environ Saf  v38, n2, p122(10), Nov 97.  Antioxidant parameters were measured in the digestive glands and gills of the freshwater bivalve Unio tumidus from uncontaminated sites, prior to relocation for 15 or 30 days to sites having sediment contaminated by industrial and municipal effluents. All parameters were depressed after 15 days of exposure to contaminated sediment, especially selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione activities.  The decreases were associated with the presence of PAHs and PCBs in sediment, and with increased lipid peroxidation in the gills. In general, the digestive gland was less sensitive than the gill. Exposure for 30 days showed that the depressed parameters remained low. In addition, non-selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase and catalase were induced in gills, showing that the mussels were adapting to the contaminated conditions. The antioxidants that were reduced by exposure to contaminated sediment, and lipid peroxidation could be monitored as biological indicators of toxicity.
#|Costan,-G.; Bermingham,-N.; Blaise,-C.; Ferard,-J.-F.  Potential Ecotoxic Effects Probe (PEEP): a Novel Index to Assess and Compare the Toxic Potential of Industrial Effluents. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality, Vol. 8, No. 2, p 115-140, May 1993. An index allowing the assessment and comparison of the toxic potential of industrial effluents is described. Integrating the results of practical small-scale screening bioassays (Photobacterium phosphoreum Microtox test, Selenastrum capricornutum growth inhibition microtest, Ceriodaphnia dubia lethality and reproduction inhibition tests, Escherichia coli genotoxicity SOS Chemotest), this index takes into account persistence of toxicity, (multi)specificity of toxic impact, and effluent flow. The resulting Potential Ecotoxic Effects Probe (PEEP) index number is reflected by a log value that varies from 0 to infinity but normally will not surpass a value of 10. The structure of the mathematical formula generating PEEP values is simple and 'user friendly' in that it can accommodate numbers and types of bioassays to fit particular needs. Thirty-seven effluents from eight industrial sectors (pulp and paper, petroleum refining, inorganic/organic chemical production, mining, metallurgy, metal plating, and textile production) were compared with the proposed PEEP scale. The pulp and paper sector effluents markedly stood out from the others owing to their greater toxicity and higher discharge volume, with reported PEEP values lying between 4.4 and 7.5. For most of these effluents, toxicity was found to be persistent, multitrophic (i.e., affecting the bacterial, algal, and crustacean bioindicators), and it expressed itself at all levels of assessment (i.e., lethal, acute, sublethal, chronic sublethal, and genotoxic levels).
#|Couillard, C M ; Hodson, P V ; Gagnon, P ; Dodson, J J.  Lesions and parasites in white suckers, Catostomus commersoni, in bleached-kraft pulp mill-contaminated and reference rivers.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1051-1060, 1995.  The objective of this study was to determine if the prevalences of lesions and parasites were different in white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) living upstream and downstream from a bleached-kraft pulp mill in the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada. Fish were sampled from two downstream and one upstream sites and were examined internally and externally. Fish living downstream from the mill had more abundant visceral fat, a higher prevalence of deformed fin rays, and a higher prevalence of black livers than fish caught upstream. They were also more frequently infested by intestinal parasites and less frequently infested by larvae of the nematode Eustrongylides in the mesentery. These changes could not be associated specifically to exposure to the pulp mill effluent since they were either explained by among-site differences in fish length or by an upstream-downstream ecological gradient other than the effluent gradient. This ecological gradient was demonstrated by comparison with a reference river, the Gatineau, that had similar physical characteristics but no pulp mill.
#|Couillard, C M ; Hodson, P V.  Pigmented macrophage aggregates: A toxic response in fish exposed tobleached-kraft mill effluent?  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 1844-1854, 1996.  An epidemiological study was conducted to evaluate whether the density of pigmented macrophage aggregates (PMAs) and the prevalences of preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions increased in fish captured downstream from a bleached-kraft pulp mill, causing induction of cytochrome P4501A enzymes (CYP1A). White suckers (Catostomus commersoni) sampled 10 and 95 km downstream from a bleached-kraft pulp mill in the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada, exhibited higher densities of PMAs relative to age in liver, spleen, and kidney thanfish sampled 10 km upstream. White suckers were also sampled at three sites in the Gatineau River, Quebec, Canada, a reference river with a similar upstream/downstream ecological gradient but no pulp mill. In the Gatineau, density of PMAs was lower in the liver of fish sampled at the most downstream site, and there was no difference among sites in spleen and kidney. Higher growth rates have been documented at downstream sites of both rivers and thus cannot explain the increased density of PMAs observed at downstream sites of the St. Maurice River only. Density of PMAs did not differ between sexes or between fish with or without grossly visible parasites or granulomatous histological lesions. Although we cannot exclude the involvement of unknown infectious agents, density of PMAs appears to be a useful marker of bleached-kraft mill effluent (BKME) toxicity. Several known toxic effects of BKME could contribute to this response, including increased rates of lipid peroxidation associated with induced CYP1A and toxic hemolysis. Further field and laboratory studies are needed to evaluate whether the association between BKME exposure, induction of CYP1A, and increased density of PMA is consistent. Preneoplastic lesions were not observed in fish captured downstream of the pulp mill in the St. Maurice River, and only one case of biliary carcinoma was observed, at the most contaminated site.
#|Covich AP, Fritz SC, Lamb PJ, Marzolf RD, Matthews WJ, Poiani KA, Prepas EE, Richman MB, Winter TC.  Potential effects of climate change on aquatic ecosystems of the Great Plains of North America.  HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES 11: (8) 993-1021 JUN 30 1997.  The Great Plains landscape is less topographically complex than most other regions within North America, but diverse aquatic ecosystems, such as playas, pothole lakes, ox-bow lakes, springs, groundwater aquifers, intermittent and ephemeral streams, as well as large rivers and wetlands, are highly dynamic and responsive to extreme climatic fluctuations. We review the evidence for climatic change that demonstrates the historical importance of extremes in north-south differences in summer temperatures and east-west differences in aridity across four large subregions. These physical driving forces alter density stratification, deoxygenation, decomposition and salinity. Biotic community composition and associated ecosystem processes of productivity and nutrient cycling respond rapidly to these climatically driven dynamics. Ecosystem processes also respond to cultural effects such as dams and diversions of water for irrigation, waste dilution and urban demands for drinking water and industrial uses. Distinguishing climatic from cultural effects in future models of aquatic ecosystem functioning will require more refinement in both climatic and economic forecasting. There is a need, for example, to predict how long-term climatic forecasts (based on both ENSO and global warming simulations) relate to the permanence and productivity of shallow water ecosystems. Aquatic ecologists, hydrologists, climatologists and geographers have much to discuss regarding the synthesis of available data and the design of future interdisciplinary research.
#|Crain, B.R.; Woods, M.  Establishment of permit limits for mill effluent.  ENVIRON. MANAGE  VOL. 19, NO. 2, pp. 273-279, 1995.  Various governmental regulatory agencies are responsible for establishing regulations on the discharge of chlorinated organic compounds from pulp and paper mills.  The procedures for setting permit limits are the basic topic of this article.  Different methods of determining permit limits are set forth and discussed in a number of references, including documents of the Environmental Protection Agency. This paper discusses in detail the application of one particular methodology--the lognormal model approach. In this paper we utilize a real data set and include the necessary calculations required toset uppermit limits. The basic tenets of the permit process are such that if limits are set too low, operators who are in full regulatory compliance will still be frequently cited, and if limits are set too high, operators who are not in compliance will seldom if ever be cited.  Thus there is a great need for these effluent limits to be determined with great care, both to protect the environment receiving the wastewater and the industry producing the wastewater.
#|Crawford, C. G.; Wangsness, D. J.  Effects of advanced treatment of municipal wastewater on the White river near Indianapolis, Indiana: trends in water quality, 1978-86.  Water Supply Papers - US Geological Survey (No. 2393):  23 pp. 1993.  A nonparametric statistical procedure-a modified formof the lcoxon-Mann-Whitney rank-sum test-was used to test for trends in times-series water-quality data from 4 sites on the White river and from the Belmont and Southport wastewater treatment plants, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, where upgraded secondary treatment processes (oxygen-nitrification systems and ozone disinfection) had been in operation since 1983. Time-series data representative of preadvanced-(1978-1980) and postadvanced- (1983-1986) wastewater-treatment conditions were tested for trends, and the results indicate substantial changes in water quality of treated effluent and the White river downstream from Indianapolis after implementation of advanced wastewater treatment. Water quality at sample sites located upstream from the wastewater-treatment plants was relatively constant during the period of study (1978-1986).  Analysis of data from the two plants and downstream from the plants indicates statistically significant decreasing trends in effluent concn of total ammonia, 5-day BOD, fecal coliforms, total phosphate and total solids at all sites where sufficient data were available for analysis.  Because of in-plant nitrification, increases in nitrate concn were statistically significant in the 2 plants and in the White river.  Following implementation of advanced wastewater treatment, the number of river water quality samples that failed to meet the water-quality standards for ammonia and dissolved oxygen that apply to the White river decreased significantly.
#|Croce, B.; Stagg, R. M.; Everall, N. C.; Groman, D. B.; Mitchell, C. G.; Owen, R.  Ecotoxicological determination of pigmented salmon syndrome.  A pathological condition of Atlantic salmon associated with river pollution.  Ambio  vol. 26 (8):  p.505-510, 1997. Pigmented salmon syndrome is described in this review.  It is a non-infectious haemolytic anaemia with associated clinical jaundice of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), caused by exposure to a combination of chemical pollutants.  The disease has been restricted to the migrating adult Atlantic salmon population of the River Don, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, UK, where it reached epidemic proportions in the early 1980s. Effluents from paper mills, from the oil-servicing industry and from an airport were implicated as causative factors in the syndrome. Subsequent experiments showed that symptoms of the syndrome could be reproduced by the sequential or combined exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons (such as diesel) and resin acids. The pigmented salmon syndrome has not recurred in wild River Don salmon since 1989. Research suggests that this is due to directed improvements in the water quality of the River Don. The disease appears to be an example of how multiple contaminants can collectively cause biological effects which are not apparent from exposure to single substances.
#|Crook, J ; Surampalli, R Y.  Water reclamation and reuse criteria in the U.S.  WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE 1995. Angelakis, A ; Asano, T ; Diamadopoulos, E ; Tchobanoglous, G (eds ). WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 33, no. 10-11 pp. 451-462, 1996.  IAWQ 2. Int. Symp. on Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse.  Iraklio, Crete (Greece), 1995 Oct 17-20.  Increasing demands on water resources for domestic, commercial, industrial, and agricultural purposes have made water reclamation and reuse an attractive option for conserving and extending available water supplies. Also, many water reuse projects are implemented to eliminate a source of contamination in surface waters or as a least-cost alternative to meeting stringent discharge requirements. Reclaimed water applications range from pasture irrigation to augmentation of potable water supplies. Water reclamation and reuse criteria are principally directed at health protection. There are no federal regulations governing water reuse in the U.S.  hence, the regulatory burden rests with the individual states. This has resulted in differing standards among states that have developed criteria. This paper summarizes and compares the criteria from some states that have developed comprehensive regulations. Guidelines published by the US. EPA and the rationale behind them are presented for numerous types of reclaimed water applications.
#|Cross, S.  Aquatic macroinvertebrates and water quality of Sandia Canyon, Los Alamos National Laboratory, November 1993--October 1994  (PROGRESS REPT).  Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Report No.: LA-12971-SR.  Aug 95,  58p.  The Ecological Studies Team (EST) of ESH-20 at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) has collected samples from the stream within Sandia Canyon since the summer of 1990. These field studies gather water quality measurements and collect aquatic macroinvertebrates from permanent sampling sites.  Reports by Bennett (1994) and Cross (1994) discuss previous EST aquatic studies in Sandia Canyon. This report updates and expands those findings.  EST collected water quality data and aquatic macroinvertebrates at five permanent stations within the canyon from November 1993 through October 1994.  The two upstream stations are located below outfalls that discharge industrial and sanitary waste effluent into the stream, thereby maintaining year-round flow. Some water quality parameters are different at the first three stations from those expected of natural streams in the area, indicating degraded water quality due to effluent discharges. The aquatic habitat at the upper stations has also been degraded by sedimentation and channelization.  The macroinvertebrate communities at these stations are characterized by low diversities and unstable communities.  In contrast, the two downstream stations appear to be in a zone of recovery, where water quality parameters more closely resemble those found in natural streams of the area. The two lower stations have increased macroinvertebrate diversity and stable communities, further indications of downstream water quality improvement.
#|Culp, J M ; Podemski, C L. Design and application of a novel stream microcosm system for assessing effluent impacts to large rivers.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ). pp. 549-555, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL. The high degree of spatial heterogeneity and the challenge of obtaining true replicates make it difficult to predict or to quantify the impacts of complex effluents on riverine biota. We have developed an experimental stream system that simulates the riverine environment for the purpose of assessing the impacts of effluent discharges on large rivers. This transportable outdoor system is established beside the study river, providing ambient water temperature and light regimes.  The system is comprised of 16 circular 0.9 m super(2) streams, allowing for adequate replication. Current velocity is provided by an inexpensive belt-driven propeller that can produce mid-water velocities exceeding 20 cm /sec. The system is partially recirculating and the water depth and hydraulic residence times are easily adjusted. By increasing water residence time within the streams, the volume of toxic effluents or contaminants required during an experiment can be minimized. We have used this system to investigate the nutrient and contaminant effects of treated effluents from kraft pulp mills on complex food webs in the Athabasca River, Alberta, Canada. Multiple trophic-level effects are examined by seeding the tanks with natural substrata and biota (i.e., biofilm, invertebrates, fish) from the river.
#|Culp, Joseph M.  Podemski, Cheryl L.; Casey, Carol.  Design and application of a transportable experimental stream system for assessing effluent impacts on riverine biota / prepared for the Northern River Basins Study under project 2611-C1.  Northern River Basins Study project report, no. 128.  (Canada)  Edmonton :  The Study, [1996].
#|Culp, T.; Cox, W.; Hwang, H.; Irwin, M.; Jones, A.  1992.  Environmental monitoring report, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Contract Number: SAND-93-1448, Contract AC04-94AL85000.  NTIS/DE94001862, 320p. This 1992 report contains monitoring data from routine radiological and nonradiological environmental surveillance activities. summaries of significant environmental compliance programs in progress, such as National Environmental Policy Act documentation, environmental permits, envirorunental restoration, and various waste management programs for Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, are included. The maximum offsite dose impact was calculated to be 0.0034 millirem. The total population within a 50-mile radius of Sandia National Laboratories/New Mexico received an estimated collective dose of 0.019 person-rem during 1992 from the laboratories' operations. As in the previous year, the 1992 operations at Sandia National Laboratories/New Mexico had no discernible impact on the general public or on the environment. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
#|Cun, C., & Vilagines, R.C.  1998.  Time Series Analysis of Chlorides, Nitrates, Ammonium and DO.  Sci Total Environ v208, n1-2, p59(11). Data on the concentrations of ammonium, nitrates, chlorides, and DO were obtained for the Seine River just upstream of Paris, France, for the period 1901-93, and the load values were obtained by multiplying the concentration values with the corresponding water flows. Simple graphical and numerical studies were conducted to evaluate the type and dates of changes and the trends. For each parameter over the study period, the average, median, minima, and maxima values were calculated. No seasonality was observed in the data. The changes in ammonium concentrations were attributed to human and industrial activities, while those for nitrates were attributed to urbanization, animal husbandry, and mineral fertilizers. Similar results were found for chlorides levels.
#|Curtis, M.D.; Klei, H.E.; Cooney, J.D.; Ertl, R.  Reduction of effluent toxicity for a printed circuit board facility.  ENVIRON. PROG  VOL. 14, NO. 2, pp. 80-83, 1995.  Resulting from 1987 modifications of the Clean Water Act, whole effluent toxicity became a new parameter for numerous NPDES discharges. Recently, a Connecticut printed circuit board manufacturer undertook whole effluent toxicity testing and subsequently, an effluent Toxicity Identification and Reduction Evaluation (TI/RE). The TI/RE consisted of parallel efforts to eliminate or reduce the sources of effluent toxicity to a vertebrate and aninvertebrate species. Testing showed that effluent toxicity to the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, and the daphnid, Daphnia pulex, was due to different causes. The primary toxicant identified in fathead minnow testing was shown to be unionized ammonia, generated primarily from circuit board etchant rinse processes. The primary toxicant in daphnid testing was shown to be an organic surfactant/defoamer used in the resist strip process. Efforts to identify the organic surfactant were successful and resulted in the isolation of a phosphate ester as the primary cause of toxicity to the daphnids.  Product substitution was easily accomplished and resulted in marked reduction of effluent toxicity to Daphnia pulex. To reduce effluent ammonia toxicity, etchant rinse ammonia loadings will be reduced or eliminated from the process.
#|Cuthbert, I. D., & Kalff, J. M. U. M. P. C.  1993.  Empirical Models for Estimating the Concentrations and Exports.  Water Air Soil Pollut v71, n3-4, p205(26). Empirical models are developed that describe the quantitative relationships between riverine metal concentrations and general water-quality variables, such as suspended particulate matter, turbidity, color, temperature, and pH. Model development is based on data collected at 24 river sites in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. Pairwise correlation coefficients for metal concentrations and environmental variables were established. The metals considered were aluminum, iron, manganese, zinc, and copper. The models for each metal are described. Results indicated that the Fe and Al models explained approximately 85 and 90% of the variation in riverine concentrations, respectively. Approximately 57 and 37% of the variations in Mn and Zn, respectively, were predicted. Overall, the models tended to overestimate Fe and Al concentrations in the Quebec rivers and to underestimate Mn and Zn. Model applications and limitations are discussed.
#|Dalal, R., & Bhattacharya, S.  (1994).  Effect of cadmium, mercury, and zinc on the hepatic microsomal enzymes of Channa punctatus.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 893-897. The increased use of heavy metals like cadmium and mercury in industry and agriculture, and their subsequent intrusion in indeterminate amounts into the environment has caused ecological and biological changes. In vivid contrast, zinc, one of the essential elements, and used in the cosmetic industry, is known to play to pivotal roles in various cellular processes. The seriousness and longevity of these metals in the environment are compounded by the fact that they are non-degradable with significant oxidizing capacity and substantial affinity for electronegative nucleophilic species in proteins and enzymes. Exposure of aquatic animals, especially fish, to these toxic metals for a prolonged period produces an intrinsic toxicity in relation to susceptible organs and / or tissues, although no serious morphological or anatomical changes in the animal or even their feeding behavior may occur. The p-hydroxylation of aniline by aniline hydroxylase (AH) and the N-demethylation of amines to generate formaldehyde (HCHO) by aminopyrine demethylase (APD) are the two oxygen-dependent reactions of microsomal mixed-function oxidase (MFOs) which control the pharmacological and toxicological activities of xenobiotics in mammalian and other species. While both these classical enzymes in fish are reported to demonstrate relatively low specific activity, they are used as criteria for delineating polluted areas. Unlike mammalian species, however, intoxication and interference of MFO enzymes by metal toxicants, especially during prolonged exposure, has not been investigated. The present report describes the results of studies from the concurrent exposure for 28 d to cadmium (CdCl sub(2)), mercury (HgCl sub(2)) or zinc (ZnCl sub(2)) individually, on the AH and APD activities and microsomal protein content in liver of freshwater teleost Channa punctatus (Bloch).
#|Daniel T C; Sharpley A N; Lemunyon J L.  Agricultural phosphorus and eutrophications (November 1996) A symposium overview. Journal of Environmental Quality  27 (2):p251-257 March-April, 1998.  Phosphorus in runoff from agricultural land is an important component of nonpoint-source pollution and can accelerate eutrophication of lakes and streams. Long-term land application of P as fertilizer and animal wastes has resulted in elevated levels of soil P in many locations in the USA. Problems with soils high in P are often aggravated by the proximity of many of these areas to P-sensitive water bodies, such as the Great Lakes, Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, Lake Okeechobee, and the Everglades. This paper provides a brief overview of the issues and options related to management of agricultural P that were discussed at a special symposium titled, "Agricultural Phosphorus and Eutrophication," held at the November 1996 American Society of Agronomy annual meetings. Topics discussed at the symposium and reviewed here included the role of P in eutrophication; identification of P-sensitive water bodies; P transport mechanisms; chemical forms and fate of P; identification of P source areas; modeling of P transport; water quality criteria; and management of soil and manure P, off-farm P inputs, and P transport processes.
#|Daston G.P., Baines D., Elmore E., Fitzgerald M.P., and Sharma S.  (1995).  Evaluation of chick embryo neural retina cell culture as a screen for developmental toxicants. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology;  26/2 (203-210).This paper describes a study to evaluate the concordance with in vivo results of an in vitro screen for developmental toxicants. The screen is a primary culture of chick embryo neural retina cells (CERC) which undergo processes of cell-cell recognition and interaction, growth, and differentiation over a 7-day culture period. Each of these developmentally significant events is measured separately as formation of multicellular aggregates, protein content, and glutamine synthetase activity, respectively. A total of 45 chemicals, 24 of which have been shown to be teratogenic at some dosage to mammalian embryos in utero, 7 of which are embryotoxic (but not teratogenic) in utero at high dosage, and 14 of which have not produced developmental toxicity in vivo, were evaluated in this assay by investigators who were blinded to the identity of the chemicals. Chemicals were tested up to concentrations that were frankly cytolethal, or up to a maximum of 5 mg/ml. Chemicals were present only during the first 24 hr of culture. The chemicals were selected to be representative of a variety of chemical classes (e.g., solvents, metals, food additives, anticonvulsants, antineoplastics). In several cases, pairs of structurally similar compounds with different developmental toxic potencies (e.g., valproate and 2-en-valproate, formamide, and N,N-dimethylformamide) were tested. Of the 31 developmental toxicants, 25 affected at least one endpoint in the assay at concentrations which are achievable in vivo (i.e., below the systemic concentration at a lethal dose), yielding a false-negative rate of 19%. Two of the nondevelopmental toxicants, saccharin, and penicillin G, had adverse effects at concentrations below those that may be biologically achievable in vivo, giving a false-positive rate of 14%. Overall concordance with in vivo results by these criteria was 82%. Quantitative comparisons were also made between the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) in the assay and (i) lowest developmentally toxic dosage (mostly ip) reported in rats or mice in vivo and (ii) LOEC in rodent whole embryo culture. In the first instance, 77% of the LOECs (LOELs) were within an order of magnitude and 93% were within a factor of 30. In the second instance 81% of the LOECs were within an order of magnitude. Potency ranking of four alkoxy acids was comparable in CERC and the in vivo rodent embryo. These results indicate that the CERC assay is concordant with developmental toxic potential and potency for the diverse group of compounds selected, and that it could serve as a preliminary screen for developmental toxicity.
#|Davidson GR, Bassett RL, Hardin EL, Thompson DL.  Geochemical evidence of preferential flow of water through fractures in unsaturated tuff, Apache Leap, Arizona.  APPLIED GEOCHEMISTRY 13: (2) 185-195 MAR 1998. The occurrence and significance of aqueous flow through fractures in unsaturated tuff was investigated at the Apache Leap Research Site near Superior, Arizona. Water samples for geochemical and isotopic analysis were collected from water seeping from fractures in a mine haulage tunnel, from the saturated zone in a vertical borehole (USW UZP-4), and from both the unsaturated and saturated zones in an angled borehole (DSB). The geochemistry and C-14 activity of water samples from the DSB suggest that most of the recharge to the saturated zone has occurred through fractures, especially beneath the ephemeral streams. Evidence of substantial recent recharge through fractures was found in saturated-zone samples from the mine haulage tunnel using H-3, delta(34)S and SO42-/Cl- analyses. Evidence of partial imbibition of fracture flow into the rock matrix was found at multiple depths throughout the 147 m unsaturated zone at the DSB using geophysical measurements from the borehole, water-content analyses from core samples, and C-14 and H-3 analyses from pore water extracted front preserved core samples. Post-bomb C-14 activity was measured in pore water near fractures just above the saturated zone.
#|Davis, J R.  Revitalization of a northcentral Texas river, as indicated by benthic macroinvertebrate communities.  HYDROBIOLOGIA vol. 346, no. 1-3, pp. 95-117, 1997.  Macrobenthic communities were surveyed in 1987-88 as part of a comprehensive study of fish kills and water quality in the upper Trinity River. The purpose was to characterize macrobenthic integrity in relation to ambient and storm-associated water quality and other environmental factors. No physical habitat features were found to be substantially limiting to aquatic life. Water and sediment quality generally were good, and macrobenthic communities typically were healthy. Ecological conditions were vastly improved compared to the recent past, attributable mainly to decreased contaminant loading from wastewater treatment plants and reduced incidence of raw sewage bypassing. Nonetheless, some impact was evident in certain reaches.  Deleterious effects at Beach St. evidently resulted from pesticides derived from urban runoff. Slight impacts by dissolved metals were suggested for Grand Prairie and Continental Ave. possible sources included urban runoff and wastewater treatment plant effluents. Moderate impacts at S. Loop 12 were attributed to low-flow toxicity induced by a wastewater treatment plant discharge ammonia and chlorine were considered primarily responsible, with metals and pesticides possibly involved. Macrobenthic communities were somewhat degraded from Trinidad to US 79, due to storm-related stresses by DO depression, pesticides, and metallic oxides. Overall impacts were relatively slight on a long-term basis, however, and a high aquatic life use was attained at most sites. The degree of macrobenthic integrity was considered remarkable for an effluent-dominated system with such extensive urbanization in the watershed.
#|DAVIS, JG.  Nitrogen Fate and Transformations Game. JOURNAL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND LIFE SCIENCES EDUCATION; 26 (2).1997. The purpose of the Nitrogen Fate and Transformations Game is to lay the foundation for the improvement of nitrogen (N) management in agricultural and ecological systems through improved understanding of the N cycle. The game illustrates environmental losses to both air and water as well as transformations within the soil system. To win, a player must reach the ultimate goal, plant uptake. All contestants start the game as organic N (the red zone) and go through transformations to ammonium (the yellow zone) and nitrate (the orange zone) on their way to crop uptake (the green zone). But the hazards of volatilization, denitrification, leaching, runoff, and erosion threaten to take them out of the game. The Nitrogen Fate and Transformations Game was designed for extension workshop settings; however, the game could also be used withhigh school and undergraduate audiences to lay a foundation before discussion of water pollution or greenhouse gases. I have used it in a booth at a field day for urban audiences and in my undergraduate course on Nutrient Management of Animal Waste. After a brief overview of the N cycle, the game is played, and discussion on management practices that reduce N losses to air and water follows. Playing the game allows the participants to more fully understand the N cycle and management decision implications that affect N losses and the environment.
#|De Coen, W. M., & Janssen, C. R.  (1997).  The use of biomarkers in Daphnia magna toxicity testing. 2. Digestive enzyme activity in Daphnia magna exposed to sublethal concentrations of cadmium, chromium and mercury.  CHEMOSPHERE vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 1053-1067. The effect of 48h and 96h exposure to sublethal concentrations of CdCl sub(2), HgCl sub(2) and K sub(2)Cr sub(2)O sub(7) on the digestive enzyme activity of Daphnia magna was assessed. Five different digestive enzymes were investigated: cellulase, amylase, beta -galactosidase, trypsin and esterase. Both inhibition (CdCl sub(2) and HgCl sub(2)) and increase (K sub(2)Cr sub(2)O sub(7)) of the enzyme activities were noted after short-term (48h) exposure. No inhibition, however, was observed after prolonged exposure (96h) to HgCl sub(2) and K sub(2)Cr sub(2)O sub(7) and even an increase in activity was noted for CdCl sub(2). The increased digestive enzyme activity probably reflects the test organism's altered food assimilation efficiency in order to cope with the reduced food uptake. The observed changes in the digestive enzyme activity were furthermore evaluated as alternative effect criteria for chronic effect concentrations. Comparison of the enzymatic effect concentrations (1 and 2 enzyme LOEC's) with the LOEC's obtained for chronic reproduction tests (data taken from literature) shows that the concentration where at least 1 enzyme was significantly affected after only 48h exposure, was predictive of the 21 day chronic toxicity values.
#|De la Espino, E O ; Limon, G M ; Castillo Escalante, I.  A simplified procedure for setting effluent quality standards.  WATER QUALITY INTERNATIONAL '94. PART 10: WATER QUALITY MONITORING LAKE MANAGEMENT.  Ballay, D ; Asano, T ; Bhamidimarri, R ; Chin, K K ; Dahlberg, A G ; Grabow, W O K ; Ohgaki, S ; Zotter, K ; Milburn, A ; Izod, E J ; Nagle, P T (eds).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 30, no. 10 pp. 65-72, 1994.  Biennial Conf. of the Int. Association on Water Quality.  Budapest (Hungary), 1994 Jul 24-30.  The discharge of untreated effluents affects the quality of receiving water bodies and impairs their potential beneficial uses to prevent this from happening, effluent quality standards (EQS) must beset. The conventional procedure for establishing EQS requires extensive knowledge of the receiving body characteristics. When there is an evident need for setting EQS, but all the information needed is not available (a situation probably common to many regions around the world), the need arises for a simplified procedure, such as the one herein proposed. The procedure is based on four tenets: 1) the classification of major water quality parameters into four classes:  basic parameters, conservative contaminants, toxic contaminants and pathogens 2) various sets of maximum permissible contaminant concentration (MPCC), for each class of contaminants 3) two comprehensive classifications: one of effluent discharges according totheir origin, and another of receiving waters based on their intended use and general characteristics and 4) a two-dimensional matrix for different classes of effluent discharges and receiving bodies: four indices are proposed for each cell of the matrix, specifying MPCC for each class of parameters.
#|Dell, P ; Power, F ; Donald, R ; McIntosh, J ; Park, S ; Pang, L. Monitoring environmental effects and regulating pulp and paper discharges: Bay of Plenty, New Zealand.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ).  pp. 627-636, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL.  In October 1991, New Zealand introduced the Resource Management Act (RMA). This legislation represents a comprehensive and integrated approach to "promote the sustainable management of natural and physical resources." Under the RMA the "effect" of an activity is paramount in considering its approval. The preparation of the Tarawera River Regional Plan was initiated because the Tarawera River receives discharges from two pulp and paper mills and a geothermal bore field. A comprehensive monitoring program was designed to assess the impact of the discharges. This included detailed investigations of ecology, toxicity and chemistry within the river and marine environment. While the instream concentrations of pulp mill contaminants are relatively low, chronic impacts on biota consistent with bleached kraft mill effluent exposure are present. Ecological surveys have revealed significant impacts on macroinvertebrate and aquatic plant communities. Large inputs of color degrade the river visually while high effluent oxygen demand occasionally reduces dissolved oxygen concentrations to critical levels. Despite concerns with toxicity, it is the authors' view that the dissolved oxygen and color are the most significant long-term issues facing the management of the river.
#|Derveer, W. D. V., & Canton, S. P. (1997).  Selenium sediment toxicity thresholds and derivation of water quality criteria for freshwater biota of western streams.  Environmental toxicology and chemistry 16(6): 1260.
#|Dhaliwal,-B.S.; Dolan,-R.J.; Smith,-R.W.  A proposed method for improving whole effluent toxicity data interpretation in regulatory compliance. WATER-ENVIRON.-RES. 1995  vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 953-963.  We describe three statistical models for assessing whole effluent toxicity data for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System compliance purposes. The first model, on which the current regulatory approach is based, only considers intratest variation. The second and third models consider both intratest and intertest sources of variability. We perform a variance components analysis with reference toxicant data to show the relative magnitudes of the intratest and intertest variation. The results indicate that the third model, which is a mixed two-way ANOVA design with test crossed with concentration, is the most appropriate model. With simulations, we show that when using the first statistical model instead of the more suitable third model, the actual Type-1 error can exceed the nominal Type-1 error by a large amount. This means that tests with the first model will tend to produce an excessive number of false indications of toxicity by chance alone. We present and demonstrate a statistical test, called the reliable toxicity detection level (RTDL), that is based on the third statistical model. The RTDL is compared with other statistical measures used to determine compliance to toxicity and chemical effluent limits.
#|Diamond J M, Hall J C, Pattie D M, & Gruber D.  Use of an integrated monitoring approach to determine site-specific effluent metal limits.  Water Environment Research, 66 (5), 1994, p. 733-743. An integrated monitoring approach was implemented for an overland-flow wastewater facility over a 1-year period to determine whether the effluent caused water quality impairment in the receiving system (X-Trib) and appropriate metal effluent limits. The Rapidan Service Authority (Gordonsville, Va.) wastewater effluent comprises approximately 98% of the X-Trib flow under 7Q10 conditions.  Aquatic life in both X-Trib and South Anna River, downstream of the discharge, were previously recorded as heavily impacted prior to the addition of overland-flow treatment. Three forms of monitoring were implemented at this facility: chemical-specific analyses of effluent samples, whole effluent chronic toxicity tests, and stream bioassessments. Two reference streams in the area were also sampled to determine the types of fauna capable of inhabiting the receiving stream. Chemical data suggested elevated levels of copper, cadmium, and lead instream compared to U.S. EPA criteria and Virginia Standards. Chronic toxicity tests, however, often indicated no effects on sensitive EPA indicator species. Stream bioassessments suggested that both habitat and benthic substrate quality were limiting for aquatic biota in the X-Trib. Benthic grab samples and fish sampling suggested ecological impairment due to the effluent. However, introduced benthic substrate studies in the fall and spring indicated no impairment. Thus, the adverse impact observed in benthic samples appeared to be an historical effect of the effluent prior to upgrade, and not an indication of present effluent quality. The biological results indicated that the upgraded plant was in compliance with the goals of the Clean Water Act despite elevated metal levels. High effluent total organic carbon (TOC) was at least partly responsible for this result since even occasional high levels of dissolved metals did not cause toxicity. Our results suggest that following a truly integrated monitoring approach can yield appropriate effluent metal limits on a site-specific basis without necessarily relying on criteria or standards modification studies; state standards for metals, even based on the dissolved fraction. may, in some cases, be overly stringent where other factors are present that reduce the bioavailability of those metals: and setting appropriate standards for effluent-dominated streams requires consideration of effluent characteristics which may affect the bioavailability of pollutants.
#|Diamond Jerome M.; Gerardi Christiana; Leppo Erik; Miorelli Thomas.  Using a water-effect ratio approach to establish effects of an effluent-influenced stream on copper toxicity to the fathead minnow.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  16 (7):p1480-1487 1997.  Water-effect ratio (WER) testing, examining the relative toxicity of copper in various dilutions of effluent and stream water as compared with laboratory dilution water, was conducted during January, April, and June, 1995, to assess the potential of seasonal and flow effects on site water quality and toxicity of copper to the fathead minnow. Total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved solids were significantly related to effluent concentration in the site water (R-2 = 0.92, p lt 0,01), resulting in higher copper median lethal concentrations (LC50s) and higher WERs as effluent contribution in site water increased. Total recoverable copper LC50s were similar to dissolved copper LC50s in laboratory and upstream water tests (p gt 0.10), while effluent and stream water tests had significantly higher total recoverable than dissolved copper LC50s (p lt 0.01), suggesting more solids or complexing agents when effluent was present. The LC50 and WER for upstream water were significantly higher in April than in January (p lt 0.05), consistent with the higher TOC, alkalinity, and lower stream flow observed during April. The WER tests, using different proportions of upstream water and effluent (tests of additivity) in both January and April, indicated that total recoverable copper WER was predictable under a variety of stream flow conditions.  Dissolved copper WERs were less predictable, in part because effluent and upstream water WERs were similar, particularly in April. Low-flow stream conditions (when effluent concentration was greatest) appeared to be the limiting condition in terms of greatest copper toxicity at this site.  Furthermore, winter low-flow conditions appeared to be more limiting (less water effect on copper toxicity) than similar or even lower flows in spring (April) or summer (June). This was probably due to the higher TOC and dissolved solids present in upstream water in the warmer seasons.  All analyses indicated that copper was at least five times less toxic in the effluent-influenced stream water than in typical laboratory test dilution water. Our data indicate that seasonal effects on water quality, as well as stream flow, can be important in determining limiting conditions on copper toxicity in effluent-dominated stream systems.
#|Diamond, J M ; Koplish, D E ; McMahon, J ,III; Rost, R.  Evaluation of the water-effect ratio procedure for metals in a riverine system.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 509-520, 1997. Site-specific metal standards were determined for a part of the lower Lehigh River using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's water-effect ratio (WER) procedure. The WERs were based on laboratory and site water (collected downstream of the City of Allentown Publicly Owned Treatment Works) testing of the species Ceriodaphnia dubia and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) and five metals (copper, cadmium, lead, silver, and zinc) during four different months. Both species generally exhibited similar patterns in WERs. The greatest variability between the two species was observed for copper, silver, and lead. Ceriodaphnia yielded a lower mean WER than the fathead minnow for lead and zinc and WERs similar to those of the fathead minnow for copper, cadmium, and silver. The species more sensitive to a given metal did not always exhibit a higher WER, as had been previously assumed. A comparison of final WER calculations indicated that the geometric mean WER (1983 method) was typically higher than the final WER obtained using the 1994 guidance. For most metals, site water toxicity was reduced due to nonacutely toxic dissolved metal. Copper yielded the highest final WER regardless of the calculation method used. Regressionanalyses indicated that the copper WER was directly related, and the cadmium WER inversely related, to effluent concentration. Copper, lead, and silver WERs were related to site water pH. Cadmium and lead WERs were related to pH and dissolved solids. Zinc WERs were unrelated to any of the water quality variables measured and were similar among site water samples. Our results suggest it is prudent to use two species in WER testing and different site water samples to derive a final WER, particularly at sites that are not effluent dominated.
#|Diamond, J.M.; Mackler, D.G.; Rasnake, W.J.; Gruber, D.  Derivation of site-specific ammonia criteria for an effluent-dominated headwater stream.  ENVIRON. TOXICOL. CHEM  vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 649-658, 1993.  The present study was designed to derive appropriate ammonia standards for a freshwater, wooded stream on the Delmarva Peninsula (eastern shore of the United States) composed almost entirely of wastewater effluent for at least four months of the year. Representative species acute and chronic toxicity tests were performed at 20 degree C (summer) and 12 degree C (winter) to obtain seasonal standards. Acute toxicity tests using fathead minnow and Daphnia magna suggested that the site water had no effect on un-ionized ammonia toxicity.  However, resident species appeared to be relatively insensitive to acute exposure of un-ionized ammonia. Warm-water LC50s adjusted for pH = 8.0 and 20 degree C ranged between 1.02 and 2.73 mg/L for those tests in which an LC50 could be calculated. If acute no-observed-effect concentrations (NOECs) (approximately LC25) were used, bluegill was most sensitive (NOEC = 0.295 mg/L), followed by Crangonyx (amphipod) and Menidia (silverside). Warm-water chronic testing indicated that Rana (leopard frog) was most sensitive, followed by bluegill and amphipod.  Cod-water acute tests yielded definitive LC50s between 0.53 (bluegill) and 1.91 mg/L (amphipod).  Hyla crucifer (spring peeper) and juvenile bluegill were most sensitive in chronic cold-water testing. Final acute values (FAVs) of 0.62 and 0.30 mg/L NH sub(3) were obtained for 20 and 12 degree C, respectively.  The geometric mean of acute-to-chronic ratios (ACR) based on unionized ammonia were 7.2 and 5.7, for 20 and 12 degree C, respectively.  The final chronic values (FCVs) or maximum 4-d average concentrations at 20 and 12 degree C were 0.09 and 0.05 mg/L NH sub(3), respectively.  Un-ionized ammonia acute toxicity to vertebrate freshwater species (fish and tadpoles) was inversely related to temperature, whereas invertebrates often exhibited the opposite trend.  Chronic testing, however, suggested that most species were more sensitive to NH sub(3) at 20 than 12 degree C. This study suggests that the ACR developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for warm-water streams may be overly conservative for very small streams in which species diversity is naturally low.
#|Diaz-Baez M C; Roldan F.  Evaluation of the agar plate method for rapid toxicity assessment with some heavy metals and environmental samples.  Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality  11 (3):p259-263 1996.  The use of the agar plate method as a screening test for detecting the toxicity of chromium and copper and of effluents from the tannery industry was evaluated. The bacteria Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli were used as test organisms. The toxicity of chromium and copper on B. cereus was demonstrated at concentrations as low as 2 and 0.5 mu-g/spot, respectively. A linear relationship between the chromium concentration (mu-g/spot) and the diameter (mm) of the clear inhibition zone on the agar plates was observed between 2 and 20 mu-g for B. cereus and between 10 and 50 mu-g for E. coli. For copper the linear relationship was between 0.5 and 50 mu-g/spot for B. cereus and 5 and 50 mu-g/spot for E. coli. Bacillus cereus was more sensitive than E. coli to these tests. Results with tannery wastes showed that the method is applicable to detect environmental contaminants and the procedure is a convenient and economical tool for screening toxicity of chemical compounds and industrial wastewaters.
#|Dierickx P J. Bredael Rozen E.  Correlation between the in vitro cytotoxicity of inorganic metal compounds to cultured fathead minnow fish cells and the toxicity to Daphnia magna.  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination & Toxicology 57(1). 1996. 107-110.
#|Dilks, D W ; Freedman, P L.  Revised methods considered for aquatic life criteria.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 27-28, 1994.  An Aquatic Life Criteria Guidelines Committee formed by EPA may substantially change the way toxic discharge limits are set by developing a new procedure for deriving water quality criteria for aquatic life. The new procedure is being considered to reflect advances in the science of the methods used to develop the current instream aquatic criteria that are used in the regulation of toxic discharges in wastewater. The objective of the new procedure is to provide a more rigorous approach to developing exposure and duration criteria that are appropriately protective of aquatic life. Present efforts have focused on deriving a procedure for determining acute toxicity criteria (which consider the short-term, typically lethal effects of contaminants), but chronic criteria (which consider the long-term, damaging, but nonlethal effects of contaminants) also are under reevaluation.
#|Diller, J M. Compliance with NPDES storm water discharge permit requirements. ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRESS vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 41-43, 1995.  The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has established the Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) as the primary means of regulating the discharge of industrial storm water runoff under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program. The SWPPPs are, or will be, a requirement of the facility's NPDES (or state equivalent) permit. Discharge monitoring is currently reserved for only select regulated facilities. These facilities include those subject to EPCRA (SARA) Title III Section 313, land disposal sites and those with other specific categories of industrial activity identified in the regulations. However the permitting authority can, at its discretion, require discharge monitoring for any regulated facility. This paper reviews the requirements for developing and implementing the SWPPPs. Experience obtained from developing the SWPPPs for a wide range of facilities is included. These sites have included commercial and industrial construction sites, regional landfills, small light industrial facilities, and a major industrial complex covering several hundred acres of impervious industrial area. Special focus is given to methods for implementing the SWPPP that can improve the plan's effectiveness in meeting the facility's environmental policy objectives. A brief review of some problems and pitfalls to avoid in compliance monitoring is also included.
#|Dimitrova, I., Kosturkov, J., & Vatralova, A. 1998.  Industrial Surface Water Pollution in the Region of Devnya, Bulgaria.  Water Sci Technol v37, n8, p45(9). Results are presented from a study of industrial surface-water pollution in the industrial region of Devnya, Bulgaria. The focus was on the Provadiiska and Devnya Rivers. The resulting data showed that water-quality parameters were within normal limits upstream of the main discharge sources. Further downstream, however, significant increases were observed in the concentrations of suspended and dissolved solids, pH, total hardness, and the concentrations of chlorides and sulfates. Groundwater sources were also found to be seriously impacted by the industrial discharges, particularly in terms of total solids, sulfates, chlorides, nitrates, sodium, potassium, and total hardness. A wastewater-treatment scheme is developed, which includes: ammonia stripping, chemical precipitation, recarbonization, filtration, chlorination, and aeration.
#|Dobbs M G, Farris J L, Reash R J, Cherry D S, & Cairns J Jr.  Evaluation of the resident-species procedure for developing site-specific water quality criteria for copper in Blaine Creek, Kentucky.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 13 (6). 1994.  963-971. Acute toxicity tests were performed on each of nine different organisms in Blaine Creek (Lawrence County, KY) water to determine 48-h LC50 values for copper (Cu). Blaine Creek is the receiving stream for Kentucky Power Company's Big Sandy Plant fly-ash pond discharge. Selection of the nine tested species and integration of the results were based on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) resident-species procedure. The following LC50 (mu-g Cu/L) values were obtained (hardness 100-120 mg/L as CaCO-3): Daphnia pulex 37; Physella sp. 109; Isonychia bicolor 223; Pimephales promelas 284; Stenonema sp. 453; Eurycea bislineata 1,120; Chironomus riparius 1,170; Orconectes sp. 2,370; Lepomis macrochirus 4,300. A final acute value (FAV) of 10.1 mu-g Cu/L (hardness 50 mg/L as CaCO-3) was derived using the Blaine Creek database, which is lower than the EPA's national FAV (18.5 mu-g/L). The differences in FAVs were due to the effect of database size, not differences in the relative sensitivity of test organisms. Our findings provide caution for dischargers who may choose to use the resident-species procedure for future site-specific water-quality-criteria demonstrations. The resident-species procedure, because of the inherent conservative bias of the calculation process, tends to produce more stringent criteria when used on a site-specific basis. A modified recalculation procedure, in conjunction with site-specific metal bioavailability data, was judged to be the most appropriate method for deriving site-specific Cu criteria for Blaine Creek.
#|Doerr, S M ; Effler, S W.  Forecasting impacts of a hypolimnetic wastewater discharge on lake water quality.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 207-217, 1996.  Water quality impacts of shifting the shoreline discharge of a major (3.5 m super(3)/s) domestic wastewater treatment facility (METRO) on polluted, eutrophic Onondaga Lake, NY, to a deep-water location are evaluated with three mechanistic water quality models. Transport and mixing inputs for the simulations are specified from the output of a separate hydrothermal model (Owens and Effler 1996). Model simulations indicate, that by trapping enriched effluent in the lower layers, summertime concentrations of total phosphorus (TP) and total ammonia (T-NH sub(3)) would decrease in the upper mixed layer (0 to 4.5 m depth interval). Further reductions in the concentrations of those constituents would be realized by reducing sediment release, through maintenance of oxia in the hypolimnion. However, the decreases that could be achieved with the prevailing METRO effluent characteristics would not result in substantial reductions in phytoplankton growth nor prevent violation of the T-NH sub(3) standard. An extremely high degree of nitrification would be needed at METRO, particularly during the late fall to early spring interval (e.g., T-NH sub(3) concentrations < 3.6 mgN/L in effluent), to avoid violation of the T-NH sub(3) standard.  Oxygen concentrations in the existing METRO effluent would have to be maintained at approximately 70 mg/L to ensure the hypolimnion remains oxic. To provide oxygen concentrations greater than or equal to 5 mg/L in the hypolimnion, oxygen ncentrations of 130 mg/L would have to be maintained in METRO's effluent.
#|Dojlido, J. I., Raniszewski, J., & Woyciechowska, J.  1994.  Water Quality Index-Application for Rivers in Vistula River Basin.  Water Sci Technol v30, n10, p57(8).  The methodology used to calculate the water-quality index (WQI) in Poland is detailed, and its application to the Vistula River Basin is described. The summarized WQI is based on unit WQIs for individual parameters, including BOD, suspended solids, phosphate, ammonia, dissolved solids, COD-manganese, and DO, which were chosen after several years of analyses of the Vistula basin. The unit WQI is described, along with the algorithm used to calculate the summarized WQI. Examples are presented, and the advantages and limitations of the WQI methodology are elucidated.
#|Dojlido, J. I., Raniszewski, J., & Woyciechowska, J.  1995.  Water Quality Index Applied to Rivers in the Vistula River Basin in Poland.  Environ Monitor Assess v33, n1, p33(10). Water quality indices (WQIs) are calculated from unit WQIs for individual parameters. The higher the ultimate score, the better the water quality. The parameters used generally consist of BOD, suspended solids, phosphate, ammonia, dissolved solids, COD, and DO. Additional parameters can include pH, sulfates, chlorides, phenols, and heavy metals. The calculation of a summarized WQI is detailed, and the methodology is applied to the rivers in the Vistula River Basin in Poland. Of the 31 rivers evaluated, 9.6, 24, 21.5, and 44.6% were determined to be very clean, clean, polluted, and very polluted, respectively. The water-quality data for each river are tabulated.
#|DOLAN LS; DELUCA DK.  USE OF A HYDROLOGIC MODEL IN A BASIN-WIDE WATER ALLOCATION PROCEEDING.  WATER RESOURCES BULLETIN, 1993, V29, N1 (JAN-FEB), P107-117.  The Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation developed a hydrologic model to help analyze the effects of allocating water for consumptive and instream uses in the upper Missouri River basin of Montana. The model, a PC-based FORTRAN program, uses a mass-balance approach to compute monthly streamflows, reservoir operations, hydropower production, and irrigation and municipal water uses throughout the 54,000 square mile basin for a 59-year base period. Simulation results are presented as monthly mean and percentile-exceedence values. The model was run for baseline conditions and six hypothetical water-allocation alternatives. Results were used by staff resource area specialists to assess potential impacts to water quantity and distribution, water rights, water quality, stream channel form, fisheries, wildlife, recreation, hydropower production, and economics. These analyses were presented to the public and the decision-making board in an environmental impact statement (EIS). Though, in many instances, the model did not allow for detailed, site-specific analyses, the model was an important tool and its simulation results formed the hydrologic basis for the EIS.
#|Dosdall, L M ; Goodwin, L R ; Casey, R J ; Noton, L. The effect of ambient concentrations of chlorate on survival of freshwater aquatic invertebrates.  WATER QUALITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF CANADA vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 839-854, 1997.  Chlorate (ClO sub(3) super(-)) is present in some pulp and paper mill wastewater as a byproduct of the use of chlorine dioxide in the bleaching processes. Chlorate is harmful to some species of algae and consequently research was undertaken to determine its impact on survival of freshwater aquatic invertebrates. Five species representing four orders of Insecta (Plecoptera: Isoperla transmarina (Newman) Ephemeroptera: Baetis tricaudatus Dodds and Tricorythodes minutus Traver Hemiptera: Dasycorixa hybrida (Hungerford) and Coleoptera: Haliplus sp.) were exposed to 5.0, 50.0 and 100.0 mg/L chlorate for 10 days. The plecopteran Isoperla longiseta Banks was exposed to 0.5, 5.0 and 50.0 mg/L chlorate for 10 days. Survival of specimens exposed to chlorate did not differ significantly from that of the controls. The LC sub(50) for Daphnia magna Straus, determined using the 48 h acute lethality test, was estimated at 3,162 mg/L. Chlorate levels from a bleached kraft pulp mill in northwestern Alberta that employs 100% chlorine dioxide substitution in its bleaching process ranged from nondetectable (<0.002 mg/L) to approximately 75 mg/L in effluent at the point of entry to the river system. At 25 and 127 km downstream from the mill, highest levels of chlorate in water samples were 3.25 and 1.00 mg/L, respectively. Comparisons of laboratory results with field measurements suggest that chlorate discharges from this pulp mill would have no adverse effect on the survival of the aquatic insect species evaluated here.
#|Doyotte, A ; Cossu, C ; Jacquin, M C ; Babut, M ; Vasseur, P.  Antioxidant enzymes, glutathione and lipid peroxidation as relevant biomarkers of experimental or field exposure in the gills and the digestive gland of the freshwater bivalve Unio tumidus.  AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 93-110, 1997.  The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential utility of antioxidant parameters as indicators of exposure to toxicants and of toxic effects in the freshwater mussel Unio tumidus. Antioxidant enzymes (glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9), glutathione reductase (EC 1.6.4.2), superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1), catalase (EC 1.11.1.6)), redox status of glutathione and lipid peroxidation were measured at first in the gills and the digestive glands of mussels after exposure to copper (30 mu g l-1) or/and thiram (100 mu g l-1) for 3 days. The effects of a complex industrial effluent on the antioxidant system were investigated afterwards in a field study: encaged mussels were placed in a river upstream and downstream from a pollution source consisting of the effluent of a cokery for 1 week. These studies demonstrated that in both experimental exposures, the most sensitive parameters were selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase activity (SeGPx), reduced glutathione levels (GSH) and especially glutathione reductase activity (GRd) which significantly decreased. Decreases in SeGPX and GRd activities were more pronounced in the gills under coexposure to copper and thiram, with 74% and 78% of reduced activity, respectively (P<0.01) reduction of GSH levels was 50% in this case. In the field study, the activities could be reduced by 35% and 72% in the gills for SeGPx and Grd, respectively reduction of GSH levels could reach 45%. In contrast, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities remained generally constant in all the treatment groups compared with controls. Lipid peroxidation, as expressed by malonaldehyde content measured by HPLC, was slightly enhanced in experiment with copper+thiram and this increase (from 1.8 to 2.8 fold) was concomitant with a depletion of antioxidant defences. The responses of antioxidant parameters were overall greater in the gills than in the digestive glands of exposed mussels. These results suggest that among antioxidant defence systems, SeGPx, GSH levels and particularly Grd, could represent biomarkers of interest for the estimation of the effects of environmental contamination on freshwater invertebrates.
#|Duckett, H.  Organic nitrogen, nitrate and ammonia in a pasture irrigated by overland flow with wastewater effluent.  1994. Thesis (B.S.)--California Polytechnic State University, 1994.
#|Dudgeon, D.  River regulation in southern China: ecological implications, conservation and environmental management.  Regulated Rivers, 1996, v. 11(1) p. 35-54
#|Dufficy, T J ; Cappel, R ; Summers, S M. Silver discharge regulations questioned.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 52-56, 1993.  Silver-based photographic materials are used widely in hospitals, dental offices, photographic laboratories, government agencies, portrait studios, and graphic arts and printing shops. The regulation of silver and silver-bearing waste is a pressing environmental issue facing these businesses. Most state and municipal agencies are regulating silver based on EPA guidance. These silver regulations are not based solely on the free ionic form of silver (for example, monovalent silver ion [Ag super(+)]), which can be acutely toxic to aquatic life. Instead, regulations are based on all silver compounds, including silver metal, precipitate forms, and strong complexes, which exhibit greatly reduced toxicity in aquatic systems and do not pose a human health threat. The risks from toxic forms of silver are being applied to all silver compounds, resulting in inappropriately low effluent standards.
#|Durhan, E J ; Norberg, King T J ; Burkhard, L P.  Methods for aquatic toxicity identification evaluations: Phase 2 toxicity identification procedures for samples exhibiting acute and chronic toxicity. Final rept.  REPORT NUMBER:  EPA600R92080, 74 pp., 1993.  This manual and its companion documents describe a three phase approach to provide guidance to dischargers in identifying toxicity in municipal and industrial effluents (Phase I, EPA, 1991A  EPA, 1992 and Phase III, EPA, 1993A). In 1989, the document titled 'Methods for Aquatic Toxicity Identification Evaluations: Phase II Toxicity Identification Procedures' was published as a guidance document for identifying the cause of toxicity in acutely toxic effluents (EPA, 1989A). This new Phase II document provides details for more types of samples, tests and test procedures that can be used to identify the specific chemical(s) responsible for acute or chronic effluent toxicity when the cause of toxicity is related to non-polar organic compounds, ammonia, surfactants, chlorine, or metals. Phase I characterization and Phase III confirmation, the other manuals in the three phase toxicity identification evaluations (TIE) approach, have also been produced or updated to include chronic toxicity information, and new developments made since the first set of documents were printed. The TIE-approach is applicable to effluents, ambient waters, sediment pore waters or elutriates, and hazardous waste leachates.
#|Dushenko, W T ; Bright, D A ; Reimer, K J.  Arsenic bioaccumulation and toxicity in aquatic macrophytes exposed to gold-mine effluent: Relationships with environmental partitioning, metal uptake and nutrients.  AQUATIC BOTANY vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 141-158, 1995.  Arsenic concentrations in freshwater macrophytes were examined in relation to arsenic loadings in sediments (solid phase and pore water) and surface waters for a group of lakes contaminated by the discharge of mine tailings near Yellowknife, N.W.T. Lakes closest to the current discharge were highly contaminated with arsenic (up to 18 650 mu g/g in sediments) compared with other areas. Macrophytes tended to bioconcentrate arsenic relative to sediment concentrations (up to a factor of ten), with submerged species containing much higher levels of arsenic than emergents. Differences in levels between the most common submerged (Potamogeton pectinatus L.) and emergent species (Typha latifolia L.) were attributed to differences in growth form and possible differences in the ability to exclude arsenic with increasing sediment concentrations. High environmental arsenic concentrations appeared to have negative effects on Typha latifolia, as suggested by decreased stand height, necrosis of leaf tips and reduced micro-nutrient concentrations in root tissues of copper, manganese, and zinc. Phytotoxic symptoms in Typha were generally observed at sediment and water concentrations exceeding 300 mu g/g and 400 mu g/l, respectively. The lack of relationships between tissue concentrations of arsenic and environmental concentrations of phosphorus (as pore water PO sub(4) super(-3), particulate total extractable P, or As:P ratios) did not support the hypothesis that arsenic bioavailability (as arsenate) and toxicity is related to its competition for uptake with phosphate.
#|Dutta S P S; Kaul V; Sharma J; Kour H.  An incidence of fish kill in Behlol Nullah, a tributary of River Tawi, Jammu. Journal of Environmental Biology 18 (3):p263-266 1997.  This communication records an incidence of a large scale fish kill observed on 29th October, 1993, in Behlol Nullah, a tributary of river Tawi Jammu. The study of water quality during the time of episode indicated that the fish mortality occurred due to sudden discharge of deoxygenated industrial effluents showing hydrogen sulphide and very high free CO-2 and BOD.
#|Dzurik, A. ; Soileau, B. B. ; Campbell, C. Assessing the Environmental Effects of Urban Transit Systems:  The Analysis and Evaluation of Stormwater Runoff Quality for Florida Transit Maintenance Facilities.  (Rept. for Oct 94-Sep 95).  FAMU/FSU  Coll. of Engineering, Tallahassee, FL. Dept. of Civil Engineering.; Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. University Research Inst. Program. Oct 95  56p.  Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Contract No.: DTRS-93-G-0019.  An evaluation of public transit maintenance and storage facilities in Florida was performed to determine the stormwater quality of runoff from these facilities and to evaluate the validity of the EPA's assumption of stormwater runoff pollution problems.The characteristics of the facilities were investigated to evaluate the potential pollutants. These characteristics included maintenance performed at the facilities, materials used, and materials stored on-site at the facilities. It was determined that these characteristics, specifically activities such as vehicle repair, vehicle painting, vehicle washing, vehicle fueling, and storage of materials such as fuel, oils, lubricants, grease, and solvents, do provide a large potential for stormwater runoff pollution. Finally, the stormwater runoff quality data was used to determine which Best Management Practices (BMPs) would potentially increase the quality of stormwater runoff at these facilities. Eighteen applicable BMPs were identified for transit maintenance and storage facilities to improve stormwater runoff quality by preventing and treating stormwater runoff pollution.
#|Easterly, Clay E., ORNL; Jones, Troyce D.; Glass, Larry R.; Owen, Bruce A.; Walsh, Philip J.  Biotesting Wastewater for Hazard Evaluation.  Water Res  v27, n7, p1145(8) 1993.  A framework is developed to assess the public-health hazard of wastewater samples, based on a relative potency approach. Relative potency is defined as the situation where, in a given biological system, responses to different test and reference dosages are equal. Reference materials are those that have been well characterized by biological test data. Biological results for test materials are indirectly related to health risk-based guidelines of the reference materials. A battery of short-term bioassays would be used to rank the relative hazard represented by chemicals that are carcinogenic to animals. Short-term test system results would be incorporated into a data base that would include results for an inventory of chemicals and mixtures. As data were collected, chemical classes would emerge for low, medium, high, and dangerous categories of hazard.  Environmental samples could then be assessed by a position on the relative toxicity scale. Examples of the evaluation procedure are presented and described.
#|Easton, M D L ; Kruzysnki, G M ; Solar, I I ; Dye, H M. Genetic toxicity of pulp mill effluent on juvenile chinook salmon (Onchorhynchus tshawytscha) using flow cytometry.  FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATER V. SELECTED PROCEEDINGS OF THE 5TH IAWQ INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FOREST INDUSTRY WASTEWATERS, VANCOUVER, BC, CANADA, 10-13 JUNE 1996. Hall, E R ; Colodey, A G  (eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 35, no. 2-3 pp. 347-355, 1997.  On-site bioassays were conducted at the furthest upstream pulp mill on the Fraser River in British Columbia.  Uncontaminated river water was used to dilute treated effluent as discharged from the final diffuser pond. A single cohort of juvenile (8-10gm) chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) was divided into an hypoxic group receiving 65% oxygen saturated water and a normoxic group receiving ambient 88% oxygen saturated water. Both groups were exposed over a period of 30 days to effluent concentrations of 2%, 4%, 8%, and 16%, while the controls received uncontaminated river water. This range of concentrations spanned those encountered by wild juvenile salmon overwintering in the upper Fraser River mainstem. The blood when analyzed by flow cytometry showed significant concentration-dependent clastogenic damage in both the normoxic and hypoxic groups starting at the 4% concentration. A concentration-response curve was determined from the hypoxic data set. Genetic implications of mutagenic damage to natural populations of chinook salmon are discussed along with the utility of the flow cytometer in detecting genotoxic damage.
#|Ebert, Ellen S; Harrington, Natalie W; Boyle, Kevin J; Knigh,t James W; Keenan, Russell E. Estimating consumption of freshwater fish among Maine anglers. North American Journal of Fisheries Management  13 (4):p737-745, 1993.  In deriving water quality standards and appropriate restoration levels for contaminated surface waters, the potential for human exposure is often the most important factor to be considered. For certain persistent compounds, like 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) or mixtures of polychlorinated biphenyls, a primary pathway of human exposure is through ingestion of fishobtained from affected waters. Pending water quality regulation for TCDD in Maine required that estimates be made of the rate of consumption of freshwater fish obtained from rivers that receive TCDD discharges. Because commercial freshwater fishers do not exist on Maine rivers, any freshwater fish that are eaten have been caught by anglers. A statewide mail survey of Maine's licensed anglers was undertaken to characterize rates of fish consumption from rivers and streams in Maine. The survey was mailed to 2,500 licensed resident anglers who were randomly selected from state license files. The response rate of 70% (based on deliverable surveys) resulted in a usable sample of 1,612 anglers. Results of this study indicated that, if fish are shared with other fish eaters in the household, the annual average consumption of freshwater river fish per consuming angler in Maine is 3.7 g/d. Comparisons of findings of this study and of studies in other regions of the United States show considerable variations in fish consumption rates, supporting the use of state- or region-specific estimates of fish consumption in establishing water quality regulations for persistent, biologically accumulative compounds.
#|Ecotoxicity in the Reconquista River, Providence of Buenos Aires, Argentina: A preliminary study.  ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES; 104 (2). 1996. 186-189.  The Reconquista River in Argentina is considered a "supercritical" river basin due to environmental degradation. Within its valley of 1.547 km2, there are more than 3 million inhabitants and 12,000 industries.  Using early-life-stage toxicity tests with Bufo arenarum embryos (the most sensitive of three native species) we determined the water quality at six sampling stations of the river valley and expressed the results as acute and chronic toxicity units. Along most of the river, the toxicity was higher than the allowable level of whole industrial effluent toxicity recommended by U.S. EPA.  In a tributary stream, Arroyo Moron, the water was about 10 times more toxic than the criteria maximum concentration (CMC) recommended by U.S. EPA for industrial effluents.  Similar degradation of the water quality was found taking as a reference value an upstream sampling station. In all places where the water quality was worse than the CMC, no macroorganisms were found, and in one of these places, a large number of dead fishes was observed. Our study points out that amphibian early-life-stage toxicity tests could be appropriate for assessing water contamination and water quality, which is essential for diagnosis, protection of environmental services, monitoring, and restoration purposes.
#|Edwards, C. ; Arand, M.  Plant removes phosphorus to protect scenic river.  WATER ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT vol. 141, no. 10, pp. 22-23.  1994.  Engineers from as far away as Canada and Mexico have been visiting Tahlequah, Oklahoma, to see is the town's new $9 million wastewater treatment plant which has become a kind of engineering tourist attraction. Designed to meet a set of very restrictive state effluent standards, the new facility operates under a discharge permit with limits of 7.6 mg/l for biological oxygen demand (BOD), 11.0 mg/l for total suspended solids (TSS), 1.5 mg/l for ammonia-nitrogen (NH sub(3)-N), and 1.0 mg/l for phosphorus. The reason for these stringent effluent limitations is the presence of the Illinois River, into which the treatment plant discharges.
#|Edwards, D. R., Daniel, T. C., Scott, H. D., Moore, P. A. Jr., Murdoch, J. F., & Vendrell, P. F.  1998.  Effect of BMP Implementation on Storm Flow Quality of Two Northwestern Arkansas Streams.  Trans Am Soc Agric Eng v40, n5, p1311(9). Best management practices (BMPs-those designated by government agencies as options that meet certain criteria) for improving agricultural runoff quality have been designated on the basis of plot- and field-scale studies. Only limited information is available on the watershed scale, especially for pasture lands. Implementation of a BMP program in the Lincoln Lake watershed, northwestern Arkansas, was effective for reducing storm stream flow concentrations and mass transport of nitrate nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, ortho-phosphorus, total phosphorus, COD, and total suspended solids. Monitoring of storm flow quality into two major tributaries in the watershed showed significant decreases in most of these parameters, occurring concurrently with BMP implementation. The nutrient management BMP probably is most responsible for the improvements.
#|EDWARDS, LAURA CLEVELAND. THE AQUATIC TOXICITY AND MUTAGENICITY OF AZO AND FORMAZAN DYES (LEMNA MINOR, SALMONELLA, CHROMIUM, COBALT, IRON DYES). PH.D., 1996. NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY. The health of the environment is of paramount importance in today's textile and chemical industries. Growing regulations and public pressure have forced companies to be increasingly careful in every aspect of their production operations. For dyers and dye manufacturers, the disposal of dye effluent is of major concern. Colored wastewater is aesthetically unpleasing to the public and poses a potential health hazard to humans who consume it and to plants and animals that live in it. Though all dye classes present some concern, environmentally, dyes complexed with toxic metals are of special concern. This dissertation is concerned with the mutagenicity and aquatic toxicity of metallized and unmetallized azo and formazan dyes. The Salmonella/Mammalian Microsome Assay and the Lemna Aquatic Toxicity Assay were used to assess the properties of 27 dyes. The goals of this project were: (1) to determine structure/activity relationships; (2) to determine whether replacing chromium and cobalt with iron in metal complexes would lower mutagenicity and aquatic toxicity; and (3) to determine the effect of ozonolysis on the aquatic toxicity of metal-complex dyes. The results of this study suggest that: (1) The bacterial mutagenicity of the dyes examined was primarily due to nitro groups in the molecule. The mutagenic compounds were primarily frameshift mutagens and were both direct-acting and indirect-acting. (2) The mutagenicity of metal-complexes was dependent on the mutagenicity of the precursor. (3) In aquatic toxicity studies, iron-complexed azo dyes were less toxic to Lemna Minor than the corresponding chromium or cobalt complexes. (4) Ozonolysis of aqueous solutions of metal-complex dyes led to an increase in pH and to an increase in toxicity to Lemna Minor for most dyes. It is apparent that iron-complex dyes have lower levels of aquatic toxicity than chromium or cobalt complexes, and that iron-complexation will generally decrease bacterial mutagenicity. The use of iron-complexes is therefore a viable alternative to complexes of chromium and cobalt and will reduce the genotoxicity of metallized dyes.
#|Edwards, T. K. (1993). Assessment of surface-water quality and water-quality control alternatives, Johnson Creek basin, Oregon. Water Resources Investigation Report: 93-4090.  46pp.  Johnson Creek flows through a basin of approximately 51 square miles with mixed land uses over a reach of approximately 24 river miles from southwest of Gresham, Oregon, to its confluence with the Willamette River in Milwaukie, Oregon. Land uses within the basin include forested and agricultural lands, suburban residential, urban, and light industrial. Surface runoff and ground-water flow from the basin's areas of various land use result in concentrations of some nutrients, trace elements, and organic compounds at levels exceeding U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) criteria. Concentrations of dissolved cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, and silver, total recoverable chlordane, dieldrin, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) plus metabolites indicate that sources of at least one or more of these constituents exist in virtually every reach of Johnson Creek. Crystal Springs Creek is a major source of nutrients in lower Johnson Creek. Concentrations of dissolved nitrate and orthophosphorus in Johnson Creek are elevated at low flow, and are reduced by dilution when urban runoff flows into the creek during storms. Total-phosphorus concentrations exceed USEPA criteria at several sites in Johnson Creek during low flow, and at all sites during periods of storm runoff. Three organochlorine pesticide compounds were found at elevated concentrations. Even though total-recoverable chlordane, dieldrin, and DDT plus its metabolites are elevated at some sites during low flow, increased concentrations and expanded areal distribution during storms, when heavy sediment loads are entrained, reflect their hydrophobic nature and long-term persistence in the environment. The low-flow concentration of dissolved silver exceeded hardness-dependent USEPA Fresh Water Chronic Toxicity (FWCT) criterion only in Crystal Springs Creek. Concentrations of dissolved cadmium, copper, lead, and mercury exceeded their respective FWCT criteria at selected sites in Johnson Creek Basin during storm runoff. Water quality in the basin could be improved by implementing one or a combination of management practices. These practices could include control of contaminants at their source and removal of contaminant-laden sediment by constructed settling basins and (or) natural or constructed wetland. Wetlands can act as biofilters to reduce contaminant concentrations carried by flows released downstream.
#|Effler, S W ; Doerr, S M.  Water quality model evaluations for scenarios of loading reductions and diversion of domestic waste effluent around Onondaga Lake.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 181-198, 1996.  Management models for total phosphorus (TP), various nitrogen (N) species, and dissolved oxygen (DO), for polluted culturally eutrophic Onondaga Lake are developed from models presented and tested earlier in this issue (Doerr et al. 1996a, Canale et al. 1996, Gelda and Auer 1996). The management models are applied to test a wide range of remediation alternatives, corresponding to a wide range of reductions in pollutant loading. The analysis focuses primarily on the effluent (3.5 m super(3)/s(80 MGD)) received from an adjoining domestic wastewater plant (METRO), though a reasonable upper bound of reductions in tributary TP load also is considered. The decreases in lake TP and total ammonia (T-NH sub(3)) concentrations that could be achieved by partial diversion of METRO, increased treatment at METRO, and reductions in tributary loading, would not be adequate to meet the established in-lake TP goal of 20 mu g/L (as a summer average in the upper waters), the T-NH sub(3) standard for the lake (0.77 mgN/L for the upper waters in summer), nor the DO standard for the lake's upper waters (daily average greater than or equal to 5 mg/L). Diversion of the entire METRO discharge around the lake is found to be necessary to meet the T-NH sub(3) standard, to approach or meet the TP concentration goal, and to avoid violation of the DO standard in the upper waters during fall. Reductions in the prevailing tributary TP load, of as much as 30%, may be necessary to reach the TP goal.
#|Effler, S W ; Hennigan, R D.  Onondaga Lake, New York: Legacy of pollution.  LAKE AND RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1-13, 1996.  Onondaga Lake, NY, has been described as the most polluted lake in the United States. This medium size (surface area of 12 km super(2) and mean depth of 10.9 m), rapidly flushed (average of 3.9 flushes/y), urban lake has received large quantities of domestic and industrial waste associated with development of the Syracuse area. Selected features of the history of development of the area, including municipal and industrial inputs to the lake, are reviewed. Presently about 20% of the inflow to the lake is municipal wastewater effluent. Standards for dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform, free ammonia, nitrite, clarity, and mercury concentration in fish flesh are violated routinely in the lake, a state guidance value for total phosphorus concentration is exceeded annually, and the lake's stratification/mixing regime and littoral zone have been impacted. Enforcement actions, now underway against the primary sources of municipal and industrial waste, are described. The design of the research program for the lake is reviewed, and the role subsequent articles in this issue play in developing a management strategy for remediation is described.
#|Egan, J T ; Michael, G Y ; Grimes, M M ; Moore, T F ; Canton, S P ; Rochette, A P. Tailoring requirements to reality: The Santa Ana River use attainability analysis.  SEEKING AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH PLATTE BASIN.  Klein, K C ; Williams, D J  (eds ).  INF. SER. COLO. WATER RESOUR. RES. INST. vol. 76 p. 61, 1993. 1993 South Platte Forum: COLORADO WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE.  COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY, FORT COLLINS, CO. This paper presents a summary of a comprehensive use attainability analysis (UAA) on the Santa Ana River in Southern California. The river is an urbanized effluent-dominated watercourse that has its origin in the foothills of the San Bernadino Mountains.  The Santa Ana River has multiple beneficial uses including warm water aquatic life. As a result of the river being placed on the EPA's 304(1) "short" list for presumed impairment of the aquatic life use because of heavy metals contamination, a year long UAA was conducted along its entire length. The UAA included integrated water chemistry, fish surveys, invertebrate enumeration, biomonitoring, habitat assessment, fish flesh analysis, pathogen screening, and socio-economic impact analysis. The UAA found no impairment due to metals, but found physical habitat limitations and some impairment from chlorine, ammonia, and nitrate. Beneficial use modifications, site specific water quality objectives, and reach boundary changes were recommended. Two billion dollars in unnecessary capitol improvements were avoided. The project also provided a holistic picture of the Santa Ana River that is being used by policy-makers and utilities for future planning and informed decision-making.
#|Eisler, R.  (1996).  Silver Hazards to Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review.  Biol. Rep. Natl. Biol. Serv. #32.  Ecological and toxicological aspects of silver (Ag) and silver salts in the environment are briefly summarized with an emphasis on natural resources. Subtopics include sources and uses, chemistry and metabolism, concentrations in field collections, lethal and sublethal effects, and recommendations for the protection of natural resources. Elevated silver concentrations in biota occur in the vicinities of sewage outfalls, electroplating plants, mine waste sites, and silver-iodide seeded areas; in the United States, the photography industry is the major source of anthropogenic silver discharges into the biosphere. Silver and its compounds are not known to be mutagenic, teratogenic, or carcinogenic. Free silver ion, however, was lethal to representative species of sensitive aquatic plants, invertebrates, and teleosts at nominal water concentrations. Proposed criteria for the protection of living organisms from silver are listed and discussed.
#|Eisler, R. Copper hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: A synoptic review.  Biol. Sci. Rep. Natl. Biol. Serv. no. 1997-2, 98 pp, 1997.  This report is a selective review and synthesis of the technical literature on copper and copper salts in the environment and their effects primarily on fishes, birds, mammals, terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, and other natural resources. The subtopics include copper sources and uses chemical and biochemical properties concentrations of copper in field collections of abiotic materials and living organisms effects of copper deficiency lethal and sublethal effects on terrestrial plants and invertebrates, aquatic organisms, birds, and mammals, including effects on survival, growth, reproduction, behavior, metabolism, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and teratogenicity proposed criteria for the protection of human health and sensitive natural resources and recommendations for additional research.
#|Eisler, R., Andren, A. W., & Bober, T. W. E. (1996).  A review of silver hazards to plants and animals.  International Conference Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI, Aug 25-28, 1996.  pp. 143-144.  A review of available literature on ecological and toxicological data of silver (Ag) and silver salts in the environment are briefly summarized, with an emphasis on natural resources. Subtopics include sources and uses of silver, chemistry and metabolism, concentrations in field collections, lethal and sublethal effects, and recommendations for the protection of natural resources. Elevated silver concentrations in biota occur in the vicinities of sewage outfalls, electroplating plants, mine wastes, and silver-iodide seeded areas in the United States, the photography industry is the major source of anthropogenic silver discharges into the biosphere. Maximum silver concentrations found in field collections, in mg total Ag/kg dry weight (tissue), are 1.5 in mammals (liver), 6 in fish (bone), 14 in plants (whole), 30 in annelid worms (whole), 44 in birds (liver), 110 in mushrooms (whole), 185 in bivalve molluscs (soft parts), and 320 in gastropods (whole). Humans with silver poisoning (argyria) contain as much as 72 mg total Ag/kg dry weight skin and 1,300 mg total Ag /kg fresh weight whole body. Silver and its compounds are not known to be mutagenic, teratogenic, or carcinogenic. Under normal routes of exposure, silver does not pose serious environmental health problems to humans at less than 100 ug total Ag/L drinking water or less than 10 ug total Ag/m super(3) air. Free silver ion (Ag super(+)), however, is lethal to representative species of sensitive aquatic plants, invertebrates, and teleosts at nominal water concentrations of 1.2 to 4.9 ug/L at sublethal concentrations, significant adverse effects occur between 0.17 and 0.6 ug/L. No data are available on effects of silver on avian or mammalian wildlife all studied effects are on poultry, small laboratory animals, and livestock. Silver is harmful to poultry at concentrations as low as 1.8 mg total Ag/kg whole egg fresh weight by way of injection, 100 mg total Ag/L in drinking water, or 200 mg total Ag/kg in diets sensitive mammals are adversely affected at total silver concentrations as low as 250 ug/L in drinking water, 6 mg/kg in diets, or 13.9 mg/kg whole body. Proposed criteria for the protection of sensitive resources are discussed in terms of silver speciation in natural waters, the significance of silver residues in tissues, silver interactions with other metals, the environmental fate of silver, and silver absorption and retention by animals.
#|Ejaz, M. S.; Peralta, R. C.  Modeling for optimal management of agricultural and domestic wastewater loading to streams.  Water Resources Research  vol. 31 (4):  p.1087-1096.  1995.  A simulation/optimization model to aid managing multiobjective waste water loading to streams while maintaining adequate downstream water quality is presented. The conflicting objectives are to max. the human and dairy cattle populations from which treated waste water can be discharged to the river system. Municipal waste water undergoes primary and secondary treatment by a sewerage treatment plant (STP) before entering at a steady point source.  Dairy waste water is treated by overland flow (OLF) land treatment before entering the stream as a controlled steady diffuse source.  Max. dual-source loading strategies which do not degrade downstream water quality beyond specific limits were developed. For each computed loading strategy, an opt. OLF system design was also determined.  TheE constraint method is used to obtain sets on noninferior solutions.  Sets of noninferior solutions are represented graphically to show the trade-off between human and bovine populations that can be maintained. Each set is computed for a different upstream flow rate to illustrate sensitivity to nondeterministic upstream flow rates.  The nonlinear constraints utilized restrict downstream concn of 5-day biochemical oxygen demand, dissolvedoxygen, itrogen (organic, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate), organic and dissolved phosphorus, and chlorophyll a. Concnaredescribed via regression equations.  The new regression expressions, surrogates for the complex advective-dispersive equation, permit rapid and feasible solutions by this model.
#|Elder, G. R.; Simpson, K. A.  Critical Review of Selective Absorbers for Radioactive and Hazardous Species.  IAEA TECDOC-929: Treatment Technol for Low and Intermediate Level Waste from Nucl Applications  p153(9) Feb 97.  The efficacy of selective removal of radioactive and hazardous constituents from liquid and solid waste streams rests on the selectivity and distribution ratios of the absorber. Sorption reversibility, absorber stability and form, and absorber cost and supply considerations are also addressed. The importance of these factors in treatment effectiveness is illustrated in case studies of cesium removal from Magnox fuel storage ponds and selenium removal for water purification.
#|Ellis, G. W.; Grasso, D.; Ge, X.  ARMA processes and reliability-based design of wastewater-treatment facilities.  Journal of Environmental Engineering  (New York)  vol.  119 (3): p.463-477.  1993. The applicability of univariate uncorrelated, univariate ARMA and diagonalized vector autoregressive moving average (ARMA) processes was studied and compared with published procedures for reliability-based design of waste water treatment plants. Three applications are presented.  In the first application, influent biological oxygen demand (BOD) mass loading was simulated using a univariate, weekly periodic autoregressive process to calculate sustained peak loading. In the second application, 3 water-quality variables were simulated jointly using a diagonalized vector autoregressive process to calculate potential nutrient deficiencies in activated sludge processes. In the third application, effluent BOD concn were simulated using a univariate autoregressive process to calculate the reliability of meeting permit limits of various durations. It was found that by more completely modelling the statistical structure of available historical data, the ARMA modelling techniques were effective for reliability-based design applications for which duration is important, as distinct from instantaneous peak loading.
#|Ellis, J B ; Hvitved Jacobsen, T. Urban drainage impacts on receiving waters.  JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH/JOURNAL DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULIQUES vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 771-784, 1996.  The paper deals with the causes and consequences of urban storm drainage impacts on receiving waters and discusses available methods and tools for implementation of structural as well as non-structural measures to improve surface water quality from the deleterious effects of such intermittent urban discharges. Pollution of receiving waters must be understood on the basis of the characteristics and processes of controlling interactions within the urban water and wastewater system in order that an operational procedure for improved quality of the surface waters and adjacent corridor can be achieved. The main aspects of such a procedure involve water quality and biotic criteria as well as modelling systems which enable the user to link together the effect of changes within the catchment or surface water system with a specific quality and ecological improvement of the receiving waters.
#|Emmerth,-P.; Webber,-E.C. Comparison of reference streams between ecoregions using rapid bioassessment protocols. Annu. Meeting of the Alabama Academy of Science, Huntsville, AL 24-27 Mar 1993.  J.-ALABAMA-ACAD.-SCI. 1993  vol. 64, no. 2, p. 99.  Reference streams were sampled in Spring 1992 from two subregions: the Piedmont subregion of the Southeastern Plains ecoregion located in east-central Alabama and the eastern subregion of the southwestern Appalachian ecoregion located in central Alabama. U.S. EPA Rapid Bioassessment Protocols (RBP) were used to assess stream quality. RBP is an integrated assessment comparing habitat (eg. physical structure and flow regimen) and biological measures with empirically defined reference conditions within an ecoregion. Reference streams are defined as the "best attainable conditions" against which other streams are compared when assessing impacts. EPA and The Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM) have now suggested using reference streams within subregions of the ecoregion. We compared the inter and intra-variability of two reference streams within each of two subregions defined by EPA. No distinct differences were evident between subregions. The two streams in the eastern subregion of the Southwestern Appalachian ecoregion exhibited distinct differences. Observations revealed heavily forested watersheds but some clear cutting was evident on one of the streams. The two streams in the Piedmont subregion had similar stream quality. Land use within the watersheds of the Piedmont streams was comprised of more pasture and less forested land than the Southwestern Appalachian watersheds. Therefore, land-use patterns appeared to be a major factor influencing variability among reference streams.
#|ENRIGHT NJ, MILLER BP, CRAWFORD A.  ENVIRONMENTAL CORRELATES OF VEGETATION PATTERNS AND SPECIES RICHNESS IN THE NORTHERN GRAMPIANS, VICTORIA.  AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY 19: (2) 159-168 JUN 1994.  Plant species cover-abundance and density data were collected for 94 sample plots across a gradient from rocky uplands to sandy outwash plains in the northern part of Grampians (Gariwerd) National Park in western Victoria. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was used to identify dominant gradients in species composition. A range of static (e.g. substrate type, soil depth, microclimate indicators) and dynamic (e.g. elapsed time since last fire) environmental variables were measured. Correlations were sought between these variables and vegetation patterns including those for richness (R) and Shannon-Weiner diversity (H') The dominant gradient of vegetation change identified by DCA separated rocky sites and sites near ephemeral streams, from well-drained, sandy sites. Secondary gradients identified time since last fire as important for sandy sites, and altitude and aspect-related microclimate for rocky sites.  Diversity was highest in the first 2 years after fire but showed no further decline in older sites. Overall, R and H' were negatively correlated with soil nutrient concentrations. On sandy sites R was high, but was low on rocky sites and near streams. Within the rocky sites, R was highest on cool, moist south and east slopes, and lowest on hot, dry north and west slopes. Explanations of diversity patterns based on inhibition of competitive exclusion due to stress and recurrent disturbance best fit the results presented here.
#|Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver.  Chemistry and toxicity of three wastewaters. Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver, (British Columbia).  Hydroqual Laboratories Ltd.  Canada. Conservation & Protection. Fraser Pollution Abatement Office. 1993. 59p. As a first step toward developing a toxicity testing program tailored to the Fraser River Basin, the Fraser Pollution Abatement Office initiated a pilot wastewater characterization study in April and May 1992. The study sampled effluent from Annacis Island Wastewater Treatment Plant, final effluent from Northwood Pulp and Timber Ltd. kraft pulp mill, and urban runoff from a Vancouver storm sewer. A flow-weighted composite from each site was subjected to duplicate chemical analysis to identify the main components and toxicological testing with an array of acute and chronic bioassays. This report provides analysis and interpretation of the data. Toxicity data were evaluated to identify dose-response relationships between constituents of the effluent and toxicity test results, and the toxicity and chemistry data were interpreted in the larger context of the potential effects of each effluent on the Fraser River ecosystem.
#|Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver.  Evaluation of the PEEP index and recommended toxicity tests for the Fraser River Basin. Environmental Management Associates, North Vancouver, (British Columbia).  Hydroqual Laboratories Ltd.  Canada. Conservation & Protection. Fraser Pollution Abatement Office. 1993. 59p. The Fraser Pollution Abatement Office has a mandate to significantly reduce discharges of environmentally disruptive effluents to the Fraser River Basin. One approach being considered is the Potential Effects Probe (PEEP), developed for testing and ranking effluents in the St. Lawrence River Basin. PEEP uses results from four small-volume bioassays, selected to incorporate a range of trophic levels and a variety of acute and chronic endpoints. This study evaluated the applicability of the PEEP index approach to the Fraser River basin using results of a pilot wastewater characterization study undertaken in April and May 1992. Effluent samples included primary treated domestic sewage from greater Vancouver, final effluent from a bleached kraft pulp mill, and urban runoff from a Vancouver storm sewer. A flow-weighted, composite sample from each site was tested for acute toxicity with rainbow trout, Daphnia, and the bacterial luminescence (Microtox) test. A private company also tested the effluents and computed the PEEP index for each.
#|EPA releases "flexible" Great Lakes guidelines.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 7, no. 5, p. 23, 1995.  After nearly 6 years of development, EPA released a water quality guidance document for the Great Lakes that is "more flexible" than the proposed guidelines issued in 1993. The final guidance establishes minimum water quality criteria for 29 pollutants, outlines implementation procedures, and sets antidegradation policies. The five goals of the guidance are to protect human health, protect wildlife, protect aquatic life, ensure that current water quality will not be diminished, and ensure consistent implementation with appropriate flexibility.
#|EPA to Add 'Safety Valves' to Stormwater Program.  Waterworld vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1-2, 1998.  The Environmental Protection Agency is working to revise the Phase II stormwater control program to install "safety valves" that would allow certain sources to be excluded from the national program if they can demonstrate they have no impact on water quality. Some sources not regulated on a national basis could be pulled into the program, however, to help combat localized problems with water quality. The existing National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) stormwater program (Phase I) has been in place for a number of years, helping improve surface water quality in the United States by reducing polluted runoff from a large number of priority sources, including major industrial facilities, large and medium city storm sewers ("municipal separate storm sewer system" or "MS4s"), as well as construction sites that disturb five or more acres. The Phase II stormwater regulations, which must be finalized by March 1, 1999, would expand the existing national program to smaller municipalities and construction sites that disturb one to five acres.
#|Epidemiological studies related to the environmental quality criteria for bathing waters, shellfish-growing waters and edible marine organisms.  1995.  MAP Technical Reports Series no. 93.  UNEP, Athens (Greece). Mediterranean Action Plan; WHO, Geneva (Switzerland).
#|ERICKSON RJ, BENOIT DA, MATTSON VR, NELSON HP, & LEONARD EN. (1996). THE EFFECTS OF WATER CHEMISTRY ON THE TOXICITY OF COPPER TO FATHEAD MINNOWS.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY, V15, N2, P181-193. The effects of various water chemistry parameters on the toxicity of copper to larval fathead minnows were investigated. Increased pH, hardness, sodium, dissolved organic matter, and suspended solids each caused toxicity to decrease on the basis of total copper concentrations. In contrast, added potassium resulted in increased toxicity. Alkalinity had no observed effect on total copper LC50s, but its effects might have been masked by those of the cations added with it. In most cases, the effects of water chemistry were found to be similar for different endpoints (growth, survival at different durations), but there were differences in the relative magnitude of some effects across these endpoints. Over all experimental treatments, 96-h total copper LC50s varied 60-fold. Every water chemistry parameter also caused toxicity to vary significantly when expressed on the basis of cupric ion selective electrode measurements, sometimes more so than on the basis of total copper. Therefore, this study does not support attributing to cupric ion a singular importance in regulating toxicity to this test organism. A variety of copper species might be contributing to toxicity and it is evident that toxicity is also affected by water chemistry in ways not related to copper speciation.
#|Erickson, R J ; Brooke, L T ; Kahl, M D ; Venter, F V ; Harting, S L ; Markee, T P ; Spehar, R L.  Effects of laboratory test conditions on the toxicity of silver to aquatic organisms.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 572-578, 1998.  The effects of various chemical manipulations of test water on acute toxicity of silver to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) were investigated. Increases in hardness and organic carbon substantially reduced toxicity. Toxicity was also inversely related to pH and alkalinity when these parameters were jointly changed by addition of strong acid or base. The addition of 2 meq/L sodium sulfate had no significant effects, but the addition of 0.2 meq/L sodium chloride increased toxicity, perhaps related to the formation of the dissolved AgCl super(0) complex. We also evaluated the effects of static versus flow-through test conditions, feeding during exposure, and aging of test solutions before exposure on the acute toxicity of silver to fathead minnows and Daphnia magna. Static conditions and feeding reduced toxicity, likely as a result of accretion of organic carbon.  Aging of test solutions had little effect. For both juvenile fathead minnows and D. magna, silver was much less toxic in water from the St. Louis River than in our normal laboratory water, presumably because of the much higher organic carbon content of the river water. This study identified some aspects of test conditions that are important in assessing the risk of silver to aquatic biota, but improved assessments will require information for more conditions, species, and endpoints.  More importantly, if toxicity test results are to be extrapolated among waters with different chemistries, adequate characterization of the chemical speciation of silver and a better understanding of the mechanisms of silver toxicity and its relationship to silver speciation and other chemical factors are needed.
#|Ernst, W R ; Hennigar, P ; Doe, K ; Wade, S ; Julien, G.  Characterization of the chemical constituents and toxicity to aquatic organisms of a municipal landfill leachate. WATER QUALITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF CANADA vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 89-101 , 1994.  Samples of leachate were obtained at four locations in effluent streams from a municipal waste landfill near Halifax, Nova Scotia.  Samples were analyzed for a number of physical and chemical parameters using standard laboratory procedures. Samples were also screened to identify organic chemicals by matching mass spectrometer output against a reference spectrum library. Static acute toxicity tests (48 h to 96 h) were also conducted on samples using rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and water fleas (Daphnia magna) as test organisms. The acute toxicity of leachate was primarily due to its ammonia content however, the chronic effects on aquatic organisms of the range of organic chemicals identified in these samples remains undetermined. Paradoxically, the leachate discharge to the receiving water body reduced the toxic potential of that water to the organism tested.
#|Erten-Unal-M.; Paranjape-S.; Schafran-G.C.  Evaluation of the Effects of AFFF Inputs to the VIP Biological Nutrient Removal Process and Pass - through Toxicity-Phase IA. Phase IA Study, Sep 96-Sep 97. Old Dominion Univ., Norfolk, VA. Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering.  27 Feb 98. 53p. This report discusses the results of a bench scale study conducted to evaluate the potential inhibitory effects of untreated AFFF wastewater to the Virginia Initiative Plant (VIP) biological nutrient removal process. A bench-scale study was conducted to evaluate the potential inhibitory effects of untreated AFFF wastewater to the nitrification process of the Virginia Initiative Plant biological nutrient removal system. Under this testing, bench-safe reactors simulating the nitrification process were loaded at various AFFF concentrations and the influence on the process performance was evaluated. The purpose of this effort was to determine the level of AFFF that could be incorporated into the influent of a biological nutrient removal process without causing inhibitory effects. The results of the nitrification inhibition study showed that the AFFF concentrations tested in the range between 10 ppm to 60 ppm did not show any significant inhibition to biological nitrification. The effluent from each reactor did not exhibit any pass-through toxicity as well.
#|Esposito, David M.  Significance of Denitrification During Stream Channel Recharge of Sewage Effluent.  American Water Resources Association:  Proceedings of the Symposium on Effluent Use Management  Tucson, AZ.  August 29-September 2, 1993.  p 123-130.  American Water Resources Association.  In the arid West, discharge of treated municipal wastewater to normally dry streams generally results in significant recharge to groundwater.  Because of the high total nitrogen levels in effluent (in Tucson, Arizona, levels are greater than 20 mg/L), nitrate contamination of groundwater is a potential concern. Sewage effluent has been disposed of northwest of Tucson since the early 1900s. Continuous discharge of treated sewage effluent to the Santa Cruz River began in 1969 and continues to this day. Groundwater monitoring downstream of Tucson's wastewater treatment plants has shown nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in the range of 5 mg/L. Investigations have also shown almost complete removal of nitrate in less than two feet of percolation beneath the bed of the Santa Cruz River. This paper discusses the results of a study undertaken to evaluate the potential nitrogen removal mechanisms at work during the recharge of treated sewage effluent in the Santa Cruz River.
#|Etnier, E. L., Opresko, D. M., & Talmage, S. S.  (1994).  Second report on the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant fish kill for Upper East Fork Poplar Creek.  Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  August 1994.  221p.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication Number 4274. Sponsored by Department of Energy, Washington, DC. This report summarizes the monitoring of fish kills in upper East Fork Poplar Creek (EFPC) from July 1990 to June 1993. Since the opening of Lake Reality (LR) in 1988, total numbers of fish inhabiting upper EFPC have increased. However, species diversity has remained poor. Water quality data have been collected in upper EFPC during the time period covered in this report. Total residual chlorine (TRC) levels have exceeded federal and state water quality criteria over the years. However, with the installation of two dechlorination systems in late 1992, TRC levels have been substantially lowered in most portions of upper EFPC. By June 1993, concentrations of TRC were 0.04 to 0.06 mg/L at the north-south pipes (NSP) and below detection limits at sampling station AS-8 and were 0 to 0.01 mg/L at the inlet and outlet of LR. The daily chronic fish mortality in upper EFPC has been attributed to background stress resulting from the continuous discharge of chlorine into upper EFPC. Mean daily mortality rates for 22 acute fish kills were three fold or more above background and usually exceeded ten fish per day. Total number of dead fish collected per acute kill event ranged from 30 to over 1,000 fish; predominant species killed were central stonerollers (Campostoma anomalum) and striped shiners (Luxilus chrysocephalus). Spills or elevated releases of toxic chemicals, such as acids, organophosphates, aluminum nitrate, ammonia, or chlorine, were identified as possible causative agents; however, a definitive cause-effect relationship was rarely established for any acute kills. Ambient toxicity testing, in situ chemical monitoring, and streamside experiments were used to examine TRC dynamics and ambient toxicity in EFPC.
#|Evans, Shane Kent. Studies of benthic macroinvertebrates in western Virginia streams as related to the implementation of rapid bioassessment techniques.  Blacksburg, Va. : University Libraries, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1997.  Machine-readable data. Title from electronic submission form. Vita. Abstract. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1997. This study tested two key assumptions in developing regional biocriteria: (1) the accuracy of the ecoregion classification framework and (2) the accuracy of standardized qualitative sampling. System requirements: PC, World Wide Web browser and PDF reader. Available electronically via Internet.
#|Everts, J. W.  Ecotoxicology for risk assessment in arid zones: some key issues.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  vol. 32 (1): p.1-10, 1997.  In hot arid zones the major sources of contamination by toxicants are: (1) plant protection and vector control in wet zones; (2) large-scale crop protection campaigns in dry and ephemeral wet zones; (3) refuse and obsolete pesticides in dry zones; and (4) mining. The vulnerability of ecosystems to contaminants is closely related to water flow. In dry areas, species are susceptible to factors that interfere with the ecophysiological properties regulating water loss. Most hot arid areas are found at low latitudes where temperatures show striking extremes both in time and space. Living organisms are physiologically resistant and/or show adaptive behaviour to these temperature extremes. Very little is known about the effects of toxicants on these key resistant and adaptive functions, although by extrapolation a few assumptions can be made. Most wet areas show a spatial concentration of both human activity and wildlife.  In mesic zones, the contamination of water represents a health risk to both humans and other living organisms. The vast majority of aquatic communities are those inhabiting temporary pools and streams. Their populations are characterized by short reproductive cycles and/or long dormant stages. Toxicants affecting growth in these areas have been shown to have a deleterious effect. In a synthesis of existing knowledge the most prominent gaps are identified and priorities for further research are made.
#|Evtushenko, N Y ; Sytnik, Y M ; Shapoval, T N ; Kuklya, I G.  Heavy metals in the fish of the middle reaches of the Danube River.  WATER RESOURCES  vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 533-541 vol. 20, no. 5, 1993-1993.  Data from the international expedition Blue Danube'90 on the concentrations of heavy metals in the fish of the middle reaches of the Danube are given. The following species were examined: goldfish, bream, sterlet, silver bream, blue bream, roach (Hungary), above-mentioned undermouth, vimba, chop, and sander (Yugoslavia). Heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, Fe, Pb, Co, Ni, Sr, and Cr) were found in the fins, gill covers, gills, scale, skin, muscles, liver, gonads, brain, intestine, spleen, and kidneys of the fish. A comparative analysis of the heavy metal contents in fish on the Hungarian and Yugoslavian reaches of the Middle Danube, with data obtained by the Danube expedition in March, 1988 is made.
#|FALANDYSZ J; DANISIEWICZ D.  BIOCONCENTRATION FACTORS BCF OF SILVER IN WILD AGARICUS CAMPESTRIS.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY; 55 (1). 1995. 122-129.
#|Farabee, David L; Wilson, Patricia S.  The Balancing Act: Achieving Total Reuse.  1996 Water Reuse Conference Proceedings, San Diego, CA.  February 25-28, 1996, p 1095-1106. AWWA.  The reuse of reclaimed wastewater, especially for irrigation, is increasingly common. In arid regions, the primary motivation for reuse is the value of the reclaimed water for irrigation. In Florida, however, reuse is usually motivated by regulatory restrictions on surface water discharges.  For that reason, reuse systems that can completely avoid discharging are preferred.  Because of the seasonal characteristics of irrigation demands, most Florida reuse systems include an alternate disposal method, such as deep well irrigation or rapid infiltration basins, for use during wet weather. In a few cases, however, total reuse is achieved. The City of Venice, Florida, is one such case. Venice operates a utilities system that provides reclaimed water to a variety of customers for irrigation of lawns, golf courses, and citrus groves. The system has successfully reclaimed essentially all the City's wastewater for reuse by accommodating variations in demand and supply with a combination of seasonal storage, alternate irrigation water sources, and selected interruption of service to non-essential irrigation areas. As a result of this success, the City has conserved potable water sources, provided for economical irrigation of residential areas, and avoided complex regulatory procedures associated with discharge to surface waters.
#|Farrell-Poe, K.L.  Ranjha, A.Y.; Ramalingam, S.  Bacterial contributions by rural municipalities in agricultural watersheds.  Transactions of the ASAE. Jan/Feb 1997. v. 40 (1)  p. 97-101.  Four rural municipalities were evaluated for their bacterial contributions to the nonpoint source pollution (NPSP) in the Little Bear agricultural watershed.  Total and fecal coliform were investigated to determine the bacterial contributions of these municipalities. Grab samples collected from perennial streams upstream and downstream of these municipalities were collected for about 15 months in 1993-1994. Total and fecal coliform were statistically significantly higher downstream compared to upstream for each municipality. The number of total coliform bacteria in either the upstream or downstream samples did not exceed the State criterion of 5000/100 mL. However, the State numerical criteria for fecal coliform, 200/mL, was exceeded in downstream samples at least five times over the 15-month period for all four municipalities. Bacterial nonpoint source pollution from rural municipalities should be incorporated in the predictive computer models used to determine total NPSP from agricultural watersheds.
#|Fastenau, R A.  Update on enforcement of NPDES permits through citizen suits.  JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITTING vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 521-526.  1994.  Section 301 of the Clean Water Act (CWA) prohibits the discharge of any pollutant by any person into the navigable waters of the United States, except as in compliance with the specified provisions of the CWA. One of the most significant provisions is the requirement for a facility to obtain a National Pollutant Elimination Discharge Permit (NPDES) under Section 401. EPA and states with delegated CWA authority may enforce the terms of an NPDES permit through administrative, civil, or criminal enforcement actions. Additionally, pursuant to Section 505(a) of the CWA, any citizen may commence a suit against a person who is alleged to be in violation of (1) an effluent standard or limitation, or (2) an order issued by the Administrator or a state with respect to such standard or limitation. In citizen suit litigation, federal district courts may enforce an effluent standard or limitation, apply any appropriate civil penalties, and significantly, may award costs of litigation including attorneys' fees to any prevailing party.  With the many demands placed on federal and state environmental agencies and the proliferation of active environmental groups, the citizen suit enforcement provision has become an increasingly popular enforcement tool and an area to which industry must be prepared to respond. This article will discuss some recent decisions interpreting the citizen suit provisions, the Clinton Administration's position regarding citizen suit enforcement, and proposed legislation that may also have a significant impact on future citizen suit litigation.
#|Fehrs, Jeffrey E., C. T.  TCLP: Results for Various Wood Waste.  C&D Debris Recycl  v4, n1, p26(2) Jan-Feb 97.  The Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) is used in the classification of hazardous wastes according to EPA regulations. The TCLP uses an acidic extraction fluid in a single process to determine the mobility of organic pollutants and metals. The acidic fluid is determined according to the alkalinity of the waste, and the pollutants under consideration. After 18 hours of agitation, the extraction fluid is filtered and tested for pollutant concentrations. If the concentrations exceed EPA standards, the waste is classified as hazardous. Regulatory levels are presented for arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, silver, cresol, and penthachlorophenol.
#|Fergen R E, Cooke J P, Boothe P, & Bloetscher F.  1997.  An overview of metals permitting alternatives the importance of clean chemistry techniques for trace metal sampling of domestic wastewater and paper mill treated effluents and receiving waters.  Dwyer, F. J., T. R. Doane and M. L. Hinman (Ed.). ASTM STP, 1317.  Environmental toxicology and risk assessment: Modeling and risk assessment (Sixth Volume); Sixth Symposium on Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment, Orlando, Florida, USA, April 15-18, 1996. vii+564p. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials): Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 415-426.
#|Ferrari L; Demichelis S O; Garcia M E; Torre F R De La; Salibian A.  Premetamorphic anuran tadpoles as test organism for an acute aquatic toxicity assay. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality  12 (2):p117-121 1997.  An acute semistatic bioassay method for the evaluation of water quality in highly polluted river samples is described. Bufo arenarum young tadpoles as test organism were used. This anuran is a species of the native herpetofauna of Argentina. The technique was checked with surface water samples of Reconquista River, collected from four sites along the low-to-high pollution gradient. The controls were run with artificial hard water. The sensitivity of tadpoles to toxicants was checked by incubation of test animals in sublethal and lethal cadmium solutions as a standard toxicant. Mortality was registered daily for 96 h and the results were expressed as cumulative mortality. Statistical analysis was carried out by means of a multiway factor analysis of variance with Bonferroni range test. Each assayed sample was chemically analyzed in order to determine the content of heavy metals, and organochlorine and organophosphorous insecticides. This bioassay did allow us to discriminate clearly between high and low polluted samples showing a good toxicological correlation with the determined chemical profile.
#|Field, R. ; Pitt, R. ; Lalor, M. ; Brown, M. ; Vilkelis, W.  Investigation of Dry-Weather Pollutant Entries into Storm-Drainage Systems.  Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. Risk Reduction Engineering Lab.  Report No.: EPA/600/J-94/451, c1994, 25p. Pub. in Jnl. of Environmental Engineering, Paper no. 6094, v120 n5 p1044-1066  Sep/Oct 94.  Prepared in cooperation with Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, TN.  Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Sponsored by Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH. Risk Reduction Engineering Lab. The article describes the results of a series of research tasks to develop a procedure to investigate non-stormwater (dry-weather) entries into storm drainage systems. Dry-weather flows discharging from storm drainage systems can contribute significant pollutant loadings to receiving waters and although they can originate from many sources, the most significant include sanitary wastewater, industrial and commercial pollutant entries, failing septic tank systems, and vehicle maintenace acivties.  Protocols are discussed to: characterize the drainage area; locate and identify polluted outfalls; estimate the magnitudes of non-stormwater entries; and locate and correct the non-stormwater entries into the storm drainage system.
#|Filipic, M ; Toman, M J. Ecotoxicological studies using modified Ames bioassay.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE 18TH BIENNIAL CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WATER QUALITY. Bally, D ; Asano, T ; Bhamidimarri, R ; Chin, K K; Grabow, W O K ; Hall, E R; Ohgaki, S ; Orhon, D ; Milburn, A ; Purdon, C D ; Nagle, P T(eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 34, no. 7-8 pp. 1-7, 1996. Health and environmental risk assessment of river and wastewaters based on single chemicals is limited by the number of chemicals that can be identified and to those chemicals for which toxicity and mutagenicity data exist. In this study Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay was evaluated as a potentially useful biomonitoring system for river water and wastewater. Standard assay was modified to allow testing of up to 2.5 ml of nonconcentrated water sample and by introducing 90 minutes of preincubation. Mutagenic activity of nonconcentrated samples was compared to the mutagenic activity of XAD-2 extracts of the same samples. Eighteen river water samples, two wastewater samples and one sample of water leaking from municipal waste dump were tested. Mutagenicity was detected in three nonconcentrated river water samples, both nonconcentrated wastewater samples and in the sample of the water leaking from the municipal waste dump. The mutagenic profiles of nonconcentrated samples were different from the mutagenic profiles of the XAD-2 extracts. The modified method was sensitive enough to detect mutagens present in more polluted river water (class IV), in wastewaters and in water leaking from the municipal dump. For the assessment of the impact of the mutagenic river and wastewaters on the environment, calculations from the results of nonconcentrated samples should be used as it seems that calculations from the results of the extracts are leading to the underestimation of mutagenic potency. Mutagenic profiles of the extracts are a useful guide for further chemical and biological analysis to trace the sources of the mutagens and to introduce measures to reduce them.
#|Filipic,-M.  Mutagenicity and toxicity of water extracts from the Sora River area. MUTAT.-RES. 1995  vol. 342, no. 1-2, pp. 1-8.  The present study was conducted on the waters of the Sora river and effluents entering to the river. The samples were extracted with XAD-2 resin at different pH and tested for mutagenicity with the modified Ames test using strains S. typhimurium TA98 and TA100. The majority of the mutagenic activity of the samples was found in the neutral pH fraction of the extracts. Strain TA98 in the presence of metabolic activation was the most sensitive condition of mutagenicity. Of the eleven sample extracts, six were positive; neutral fractions of the effluent from wastewater treatment plant, the water leaching from the municipal dump, the water from the lake lying beneath the dump and the untreated effluent, and acid fractions of two samples taken directly from the river. The water leaching from the municipal dump was also mutagenic and toxic without previous extraction. Mutagenic responses before and after extraction of this sample indicate that components responsible for mutagenicity were partly extracted in the neutral fraction. The toxicity of water samples and extracts was tested with Microtox assay, and acid fractions of the extracts were more toxic than the neutral fractions. Comparing the toxicity to the mutagenicity data indicates that components responsible for toxic and mutagenic response were at least partly separated between acid and neutral fraction respectively.
#|Fisher Daniel J.; Knott Melvin H; Turley Steven D; Turley Bonnie S; Yonkos Lance T; Ziegler Gregory P.  The acute whole effluent toxicity of storm water from an international airport. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  14 (6):p1103-1111, 1995. In October 1990, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency promulgated application requirements with deadlines for storm-water dischargers associated with industrial activity and certain municipal systems. Major airports have a number of hydrocarbon-based contaminants that could appear in storm-water runoff. In addition, ethylene, diethylene, and propylene glycol deicing and anti-icing mixtures are used during freezing and near-freezing weather. The objective of this study was to characterize the potential acute impact on aquatic life from industrial storm-water discharges from an international airport. Samples from winter storm events caused acute toxicity to both the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and the daphnid (Daphnia magna), with LC50 values for both species as low as 1.0 to 2.0% effluent. The toxicity of the samples was due to the various glycol-based deicer/anti-icer mixtures used during these events. High oxygen demands and elevated total nitrogen levels are other potential problems during anti-icing/deicing activities. Samples from rain events during the nonwinter months at the airport did not cause acute toxicity unless associated with fuel spills. As a result of this study, a new discharge permit has been issued for this airport, requiring the implementation of plans for the collection and recycling and/or disposal of the deicer/anti-icer mixtures.
#|Fisher, N S ; Wang, Wen Xiong.  Trophic transfer of silver to marine herbivores: A review of recent studies.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 562-571, 1998.  We review recent progress in understanding the trophic transfer of silver (Ag) in marine herbivores, especially mussels that have been extensively used as biomonitors of coastal contamination. A bioenergetic-based kinetic model is invaluable in predicting the trophic transfer and bioaccumulation of Ag in aquatic animals. Critical parameters that need to be quantified in predicting trophic transfer include Ag assimilation efficiency (AE) from ingested food particles, animal feeding rates, and Ag efflux rates. Silver AEs in marine herbivores are generally low (<30%). Assimilation efficiencies from ingested sediments tend to be lower than those from ingested phytoplankton. Various biological and chemical factors, including Ag distribution in phytoplankton cytoplasm, gut passage time, importance of intracellular versus extracellular digestion, and metal desorption at lowered pHs typical of invertebrate guts, all influence Ag assimilation from ingested particles. Many experimental studies show that uptake from the dissolved phase exceeds uptake via ingestion in the overall Ag bioaccumulation in aquatic animals. However, these results are probably not predictive of field situations due to their simplistic experimental conditions in which fluctuations of feeding conditions of animals and physicochemistry of Ag are not considered. In mussels, the kinetic model predicts that either the solute or particulate pathway can dominate Ag overall uptake in nature, and this is dependent on Ag partition coefficients for suspended particles and Ag AE. Silver is the only metal that varies substantially in the importance of different uptake pathways due to its very high particle reactivity and high uptake rate from the dissolved phase. Total suspended solids (TSS) loads can sharply affect Ag bioaccumulation in mussels because high TSS loads can dilute Ag concentrations in both dissolved and particulate phases. Processes affecting Ag trophic transfer and bioaccumulation are discussed.
#|Fleming, L E ; Watkins, S ; Kaderman, R ; Levin, B ; Ayyar, D R ; Bizzio, M ; Stephens, D ; Bean, J A.  Mercury exposure in humans through food consumption from the Everglades of Florida.  THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MERCURY AS A GLOBAL POLLUTANT. Porcella, D ; Huckabee, J ; Wheatley, B (eds ). WATER, AIR, AND SOIL POLLUTION vol. 80, no. 1-4 pp. 41-48, 1995.  In March 1989, The Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS) issued a Health Advisory recommending the limit consumption of several fish species caught from the Everglades region of South Florida due to elevated methylmercury (MeHg) levels (average 2-3 ppm in fish meat). There were no reports of clinical MeHg poisoning in humans in Florida, although deaths of Florida panthers were attributed to mercury (Hg), poisoning. This study evaluated the extent of MeHg exposure in persons eating contaminated fish in the Everglades region. Populations at risk were including sport fishermen, Everglades Residents and subsistence fishermen. Over 1700 individuals were approached those who had eaten fish or wildlife from the contaminated areas at least once/month for the prior three months were asked to participate. Three hundred and fifty (350) participants completed a brief questionnaire and provided a hair sample for Hg analysis. In 119 (36%) of individuals with levels above the limits of detection, the mean total Hg in hair was 3.62 plus or minus 3.0 mu g/g [ plus or minus standard deviation] with a range of 1.28 - 15.57. The most at risk populations identified with respect to Hg levels were Blacks and men. Although the majority of the participants had fished in the Everglades for many years (> 15 years), they reported relatively low intake of fish and had low hair Hg levels compared with similar populations in prior studies of other populations at risk. Although 71% of participants knew of the State Health Advisories concerning ingestion of Hg contaminated fish from the Everglades, this did not change their consumption habits. In addition, Blacks, individuals of lower income and of lower education levels were less likely to know about the Health Advisories. Given recent studies of neurologic effects from relatively low in utero MeHg exposure, the continuation of the Mercury Health Advisory and wildlife monitoring in the Everglades are warranted, especially for women of childbearing age and children. However, public education must be targeted for the population at risk identified in this study in order to reach these populations more effectively.
#|FLIPPIN-DUDLEY, SYNDI JAYE.  VEGETATION MEASUREMENTS FOR ESTIMATING FLOW RESISTANCE (FLOOD CONTROL, RIPARIAN VEGETATION).  PH.D., 1997.  The conventional concepts of flood conveyance through an engineered channel have evolved into a concept of stream restoration, rehabilitation, and/or ecological enhancement. Riparian vegetation has become an integral component of the flood channel because it stabilizes stream banks, provides shade that prevents excessive water temperature fluctuations, supports wildlife and performs a essential role in nutrient cycling and water quality. Concurrent with the benefits provided by riparian vegetation arethe issues pertaining to flood hazard mitigation. Vegetation increases flow resistance which has a direct effect on the discharge capacity and the level of flood protection provided by the channel. Several methods have been proposed for determining Manning in vegetated channels. These methods recognize that the physical characteristics and growth patterns of the vegetation are important factors in evaluating flow resistance. However, minimal research has been conducted to develop standard methods for quantifying the physical properties of the vegetation. A cooperative study between the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Colorado State University was conducted to develop a method of characterizing vegetation for the purpose of determining resistance to flow in open channels or floodplains.  A horizontal point frame was developed to directly measure vegetation density, the frontal area of the vegetation projected onto a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow. The horizontal point frame was compared to two existing methods for estimating vegetation density. The comparative study indicated that the horizontal point frame technique was rapid and more objective than other methods for evaluating vegetation density. A standard method for application of the horizontal point frame is proposed. A field study was performed in a vegetated channel located near Stillwater, Oklahoma to demonstrate the use of the horizontal point frame and its role in a comprehensive approach to predicting resistance to flow. The channel was characterized for geometry, slope, and vegetation density. A series of nine flows were conveyed through the channel and velocity and depth measurements were obtained for two vegetative conditions: (1) without green foliage and with vegetative debris present; and (2) with green foliage present and without vegetative debris. The vegetation and flow measurements were used to develop a relation for the coefficient of drag for woody vegetation which can be input into the Fischenich equation to predict Manning n.
#|Flood-K. In-situ bioassay study to investigate the acute lethality, histological damage and the bioavailability of metals to fish downstream of two mine-tailings effluent discharges, Manitouwadge, Ontario. Ontario. Ministry of Environment & Energy, Toronto. 1996. 58p.  Documents the environmental effects of two mining operations on receiving waters in the Manitouwadge area of Ontario. Investigative work included field bioassays using rainbow trout at various receiving water locations adjacent to the mine sites. Those tests measured acute fish lethality over an initial 96-hour period, and chronic toxicity involving the potential for histological damage to the surviving fish over a further ten-day exposure. Some of the fish were analysed for bioconcentration of heavy metals. Laboratory bioassays (on fish and Daphnia) were also performed on grab samples of tailings effluent.
#|Flowers GC; Suhayda JN; Clymire JW; McPherson GL; Koplitz LV; Poirrier MA.  Impact of industrial effluent diversion on Bayou Trepagnier, Louisiana.  ENVIRONMENTAL & ENGINEERING GEOSCIENCE, 1998, V4, N1 (SPR), P 77-91. Industrial effluent from the Norco Manufacturing Complex (NMC), a major refinery located 22 mi west of New Orleans, was diverted from Bayou Trepagnier to the Mississippi River in February 1995. The possibility that effluent diversion might liberate contaminants from bottom sediments and generally degrade water quality generated concern among environmentalists and regulatory agencies. Hydrologic studies completed to address these concerns indicate that the effluent was generally a minor component of the mater budget, comprising about 10 percent of tidal flow into the drainage basin. However, during intermittent, low-water conditions when the bayou was confined to its banks, effluent volume on average probably exceeded tidal flow. Although the effluent generally constituted only a small proportion of total discharge, it often had a profound effect on water quality because low flow velocities and shallow depths limited mixing of water masses. Comparison of water quality data before and after diversion shows that median temperature, salinity, and pH have decreased at stations in the headwaters near the NMC outfall, whereas the dissolved oxygen content of the water column has increased or remained the same.  Monthly monitoring data also indicate that, in general, Pb remains bound in bottom sediments despite significant changes in water chemistry after diversion. Hardness, total dissolved solids, and chlorinity have increased along the bayou, reflecting a greater influence of Lake Pontchartrain on water chemistry after diversion.  Overall, water quality has improved in Bayou Trepagnier, which should benefit the biota, particularly in the headwaters where harsh conditions existed prior to diversion.
#|FORD L; HOLTBY N; KNOX R .  Building an effective NPDES Application : Wastewater dischargers have opportunity to develop flexible permits.  Water environment & technology, 1997, 9 (4) 51-55.
#|Forsythe, B L ,II; Cobb, G P ; La Point, T W ; Klaine, S J.  The bioconcentration and bioaccumulation of silver in an experimental freshwater ecosystem.  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds ).  REPORT NUMBER: WISCU-W-96-001,  pp. 185-190, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI., 1996, Aug 25-28.  Silver is a highly toxic metal that can be found in industrial and municipal effluents and receiving waters (Bard et al., 1976 and Dagon, 1973). However, little has been done to examine the possibility of foodchain effects as have been reported for other metals such as copper and selenium (Besser et al., 1993 and Ogle and Knight, 1989).  Terhaar et al. (1977) attempted to determine the extent of bioconcentration and bioaccumulation of silver, as Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(2) super(3-), in a multi-trophic level system. The green alga, Scenedesmus, exhibited increased uptake of silver over time. Daphnia did bioconcentrate silver to levels higher than the water (BCF approximately 7.5). It was unclear if daphnids bioaccumulated silver through ingestion of contaminated algae. Bioconcentration of silver was seen with fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, but they did not accumulate silver from ingested daphnids. The objective of the studies described here was to determine the disposition of silver in a laboratory system in an effort to better understand silver's effect in receiving waters.
#|Fort, D J ; Stover, E L.  Long-term whole effluent toxicity control: interaction between industrial pretreatment and toxicity reduction evaluation (TRE) programs.  INDUSTRIAL WASTE CONFERENCE. pp. 405-411, 1997.  WEST LAFAYETTE, IN (USA) CONFERENCE DATE: 1996 May 6-8.  ANN ARBOR PRESS, INC. CHELSEA, MI. Increased regulatory concern over whole effluent toxicity control for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permittees has warranted the development of effective long-term whole effluent toxicity control strategies. At the municipal level, the Industrial Pretreatment program represents one of the best opportunities for long-term whole effluent toxicity source control and regulation.The Industrial Pretreatment program may be effectively used during three primary stages of NPDES permit toxicity testing: (1) prior to toxicity problems as a preventative tool, (2) during the TRE program as a means of identifying and controlling sources of the toxicant(s), and (3) following TRE studies as a means of controlling toxicity through surveying potential problem users, cost-effective aquatic toxicity and microbial inhibition monitoring of users, and public education and outreach programs. Overall, dischargers that have utilized the benefits of the industrial program have been substantially more successful in controlling whole effluent toxicity that those whoeither did not effectively use the program or were not involved in an Industrial Pretreatment program. In this chapter, we describe the successful connection between the TRE program and the Industrial Pretreatment program in the long-term control of whole effluent toxicity for both industrial and municipal wastewater treatment facilities.
#|Fort, D J ; Stover, E L. Impact of toxicities and potential interactions of flocculants and coagulant aids on whole effluent toxicity testing.  WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 921-925, 1995. The acute toxicities of both organic flocculants (polymer) and inorganic coagulant aids (Al sub(2)(SO sub(4)) sub(3) and FeCl sub(3)) to the commonly used whole effluent toxicity test species Ceriodaphnia dubia were evaluated. Results from these studies suggested thatcationic polymer flocculants have the potential of inducing acute toxicity to C. dubia at extremely low concentrations as opposed to the inorganic coagulant aids. Because polymers and inorganic coagulant aids are more commonly used in conjunction with one another, assessment of potential toxic interaction between the two types of additives was evaluated, as well, using joint-compound interaction modeling. Results from these studies indicated that cationic polymers and FeCl sub(3) or Al sub(2)(SO sub(4)) sub(3) seemed to act synergistically (greater than additive toxicity). Overall, these studies clearly demonstrated that both the type of flocculating agent used and the type of treatment application strongly influence toxicity.
#|Fort, D. J. ; Delphon, J. ; Powers, C. R. ; Helems, R. ; Gonzalez, R. ; Stover, E.L.  Development of automated methods of identifying toxicants in the environment.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 54, no. 1, pp.104-111.  1995.  Many NPDES permits today require the development of Toxicity Reduction Evaluation (TRE) programs designed to reduce toxicity toacceptable levels when effluent toxicity is detected. The first of two approaches commonly used in the abatement of effluent toxicity is treatment without the specific identification and confirmation of the causative toxicants. The second method involves specific identification and confirmation of the causative toxicants with the goal of locating and eliminating the problem at its source. Specific methods for characterizing, identifying and confirming causative toxicants were developed by USEPA in the late 1980s. These procedures typically entail manual physical/chemical manipulation of a toxic sample followed by toxicity assessment and analytical analysis in three separate steps.  The need for more rapid, cost-effective, and analytical methods of identifying environmental toxicants warranted the development of automated procedures using commercially available equipment and techniques. In this report, the development and preliminary validation of an automated identification methodology for water-borne toxicants using an Ion Chromatography/High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph (IC/HPLC) is presented. Development of the methodology included testing the system with synthetic media blanks to ensure that the equipment was not introducing toxicity, as well as evaluating the purity of the samples prepared. Ammonia, dissolved solids, copper, pentachlorophenol, and diazinon toxicant standards, as well as a composited mixture of the individual toxicants, were also used to develop and fine-tune the operation of the automated system.  Preliminary validation of the automated methodology was performed by comparing the results obtained from toxicity identification studies with an industrial wastewater effluent using conventional methods to studies employing the newly developed automated methods. Preliminary results indicated that the automated approach will provide the scientific community with a rapid, cost-effective, automated method for performing standard toxicity identification studies.
#|Fort, Douglas J., Stover Group, Stillwater, OK; Stover, Enos L.; Copenhaver, Michael B.  Corrosion-Induced Whole Effluent Toxicity from a Cooling Tower: a Toxicity Reduction Evaluation Case Study.  Purdue Univ/et al 50th Ind Waste Conf, West Lafayette, IN (Ann Arbor Press) p627(10), May 8-10, 95.  A Toxicity Reduction Evaluation program was initiated at an industrial facility discharging approximately 5 million gal/d of recirculating cooling water obtained from a large freshwater river in order to assess the causes of toxicity, locate potential sources of the suspected toxicants, and identify practicable toxicity reduction methodologies. The program consisted of two primary phases: toxicity identification evaluation, and toxicity reduction option evaluation. Each phase is described. Results indicated that the toxicity source was copper, so the toxicity reduction program was developed to achieve economical, long-term control of Cu loss from the entire cooling-water system utilizing corrosion-inhibiting chemical additives. The resulting data showed that the frequency of whole effluent toxicity was reduced significantly by reducing Cu loss from the cooling system via chemical treatment of two of the three cooling tower units with corrosion-inhibiting azoles.
#|Fort, Douglas J.; Stover, Enos L.  Joint Toxic Actions of Organic Flocculating Polymers: Impact on Whole Effluent Toxicity Testing-Part 3.  Purdue Univ/et al 50th Ind Waste Conf, West Lafayette, IN (Ann Arbor Press) p601(10), May 8-10, 95.  Because polymers and inorganic coagulant aids are used commonly in conjunction with one another for wastewater treatment, a study was conducted to assess joint-polymer actions using several polymer mixtures. The polymers used were cationic polyquaternary amine, cationic epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine, anionic polyacrylamide, and non-ionic polyacrylamide. Toxicity was assessed using Ceriodaphnia dubia. Results indicated that, at extremely low concentrations, the cationic polymers exhibited the potential of being toxic to C. dubia. Inorganic coagulant aids were significantly less toxic than their organic counterparts. In addition, the toxicity of coagulant aids when used in final effluent polishing was dramatically more significant than when used in secondary clarification. The data indicated that the cationic polymers and inorganic coagulant aids may act synergistically or potentiate the toxicity of each other. Mixtures of cationic polyquaternary amine and cationic epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine, and polyquaternary amine and anionic polyacrylamide polymers appeared to act in a concentration-additive manner, whereas the anionic polyacrylamide and non-ionic polyacrylamide mixtures acted in a response-additive manner.
#|Fossum, Kenneth D., Davis, Raymond G.  Physical, chemical, biological, and toxicity data from the study of urban stormwater and ephemeral streams, Maricopa County, Arizona, water years 1992-95.  Flood Control District of Maricopa County.  Geological Survey (U.S.) Tucson, Ariz.  :  U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey ; Denver, CO : Branch of Information Services [distributor], 1996.
#|Foster S C; Burks S L; Fort D J; Stover E L; Matlock M D.  Development and evaluation of a nondestructive measure of fish growth for sublethal toxicity assessment.  Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  53 (1):p 85-90 1994.
#|Foy, R H ; Kirk, M.  Agriculture and water quality: A regional study. J. INST. WATER ENVIRON. MANAGE. vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 247-256, 1995.  Water quality, measured on a fisheries ecosystem scale of 1 (good/salmonid) to 6 (bad/fish absent), of forty-two lowland streams in two Northern Ireland river catchments was inversely correlated with the stocking rate of grazing animals. A decrease in water quality of one class was associated with an increase in the combined grazing/stocking rate of cattle and sheep of 0.6 dairy cow equivalents/ha. This dairy cow equivalent stocking rate was significantly correlated with maximum BOD and total amm.N concentrations and minimum dissolved-oxygen levels. The worst pollution events, with BOD concentrations is excess of 100 mg/l, occurred at the end of May and were caused by discharges of silage effluent. Smaller BOD peaks, which occurred in late winter and early spring, were related to the land spreading of animal slurries. It was concluded that poultry and pig farms were not having a major impact on water quality.
#|Francisco-D.E.; Elias-M.C.; LaRocca-C.A.; DiGiano-F.A.; Maerker-M.J.  Chronic Toxicity Bioassay with 'Ceriodaphnia dubia': (1) an Evaluation of a Toxicity Test-Based Approach for Determining the Sources of Chronic Toxicity; and (2) an Evaluation of Culture/Dilution Waters and Diet as Determinants of Test Outcomes. North Carolina Water Resources Research Inst., Raleigh.  North Carolina Univ. at Chapel Hill. Dept. of Environmental Sciences and Engineering.  Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Water Resources Div. Aug 93. 113p. In order to limit the discharge of toxic materials in toxic amounts to the waterways of the United States, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a 7-day survival and reproduction toxicity bioassay test using the freshwater cladoceran, Ceriodaphnia dubia. The North Carolina Division of Environmental Management has developed a less expensive modification of this test called the NC Ceriodaphnia Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Toxicity Test. These tests are used to monitor discharges from wastewater treatment plants. Failure to satisfy the requirements (evidence of either acute or chronic toxicity) of the discharge permit constitutes an effluent violation. Effluent violations require that studies be conducted to determine the means to eliminate the violation. The present investigation had three basic objectives: (1) to develop and test a toxicity test-based method for locating the sources of toxic materials discharged into a collection system; (2) to investigate the effect of culture/dilution water on the health of C. dubia and reproducibility of the NC Ceriodaphnia Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Toxicity Test; and (3) to investigate the effect of 3 diets on the health and robustness of C. dubia.
#|Francisco-D.E.; Terrell-J.A.; Melia-G.M.  Evaluation of the Source(s) of Test Animals as a Component of Interlaboratory Variability in the 'NC Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Ceriodaphnia Effluent Toxicity Test. North Carolina Water Resources Research Inst., Raleigh. North Carolina Univ. at Chapel Hill. Dept. of Environmental Sciences and Engineering. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Water Resources Div. Jul 96. 70p. In order to limit the discharge of toxic materials in toxic amounts to the waterways of the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a 7-day survival and reproduction toxicity bioassay test using the freshwater cladoceran, Ceriodaphnia dubia. The North Carolina Division of Environmental Management has developed a less expensive modification of this test called the NC Ceriodaphnia Mini-Chronic Pass/Fail Toxicity Test. The study was designed to test whether publications of C. dubia from different sources (commercial laboratories) were equally sensitive to test toxicants when all other factors which effect survival and reproduction were identical.
#|Franks, A. P., Harper, P. J., & Bilo, M.  (1996).  Relationship between risk of death and risk of dangerous dose for toxic substances.  Journal of Hazardous Materials v 51 n 1-3, p 11-34. The relationship between risk of dangerous dose or worse and risk of `death' (expressed as LD50 or worse, or LD95 or worse) has been studied for acutely toxic substances using the Health & Safety Executive's (HSE) Risk Assessment Tool, RISKAT. The analysis was carried out for chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride and sulphur dioxide, at a range of major hazard sites. Consistent relationships, of the form y equals x**a/b, were found between individual risk of dangerous dose or worse and individual risk of `death'. These were y equals x**1**.**1**1/2.59 for LD50 and y equals x**1**.**2**3/5.62 for LD95, where y is the risk of `death' and x is the risk of dangerous dose or worse. It is thought that the form of this relationship arises from the way hazard ranges vary with distance and the way in which large releases of toxic material tend to have lower frequencies of occurrence than smaller releases. The existence of a consistent relationship between different substances is thought to be due to the way in which HSE selects the toxicological data it uses and the fact that all of the substances studied have a similar mechanism of toxic action.
#|French DP, Rines H, Gifford D, Keller A, & Pavignano S.  Guidance Document for Natural Resource Damage Assessment under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. Primary Restoration.  EG and G Washington Analytical Services Center, Inc., Rockville, MD.; Applied Science Associates, Inc., Narragansett, RI.; Kearney (A.T.), Inc., Alexandria, VA.; Little (Arthur D.), Inc., Cambridge, MA.  TD3: The Primary Restoration Guidance Document provides a review of the state of the art for restoration of certain habitats and biological natural resources and an evaluation of potential restoration actions following injury to natural resources resulting from incidents. This document is meant to summarize existing information and methods so that informed decisions can be made in the restoration planning and implementation process. Although prepared primarily to provide guidance to natural resource trustees using the OPA regulations, others interested in the protection and restoration of injured natural resources and services may find the information contained in this document useful.  Final rept.  See also PB96-199450. Prepared in cooperation with Applied Science Associates, Inc., Narragansett, RI., Kearney (A.T.), Inc., Alexandria, VA. and Little (Arthur D.), Inc., Cambridge, MA. Sponsored by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD. Damage Assessment Center.
#|FRIAS J; RIBAS F; LUCENA F.  Critical study of the use of Pseudomonas fluorescens P17 to determine assimilable organic carbon (AOC). WATER RESEARCH; 28 (6). 1994. 1463-1469.  Assimilable organic carbon (AOC) is almost the only limiting factor for bacterial growth in water, and the main factor responsible for bacterial proliferation and related water quality deterioration. In distribution mains Pseudomonas fluorescens strain P17 is used as standard in a reproducible test for the determination of AOC in water. In order to establish the standard conditions for the use of this microorganism, a series of experiments was performed to determine growth yield in different conditions. These results indicate that the kinetics of the growth of P17 depends on several factors, which complicates its use in a standard method for AOC determination.
#|Frydenborg,-R.B.; Lurding,-K.M.  Resource-effective lake bioassessments for the determination of non-point source impairment in Florida. Annu. International Symposium of the North American Lake Management Society, Orlando, FL (USA) 31 Oct-5 Nov 1994.  LAKE-RESERV.-MANAGE. 1994  vol. 9, no. 2, p. 75.  Stormwater runoff is a serious threat to Florida's lakes. Comprehensive biological assessments which document the health of the State's lakes in relation to Water Quality Rules, are needed to target areas where better watershed management is required. Considering the vast numbers of lakes in the state (7000+), these assessments must be cost-effective, as well as legally defensible. As a pilot program, part of a State-wide lakes bioassessment initiative, the Dept. of Environmental Protection has conducted multi-disciplinary studies on 26 lakes. Half of these were potentially degraded lakes, which were matched with a paired reference lake, based upon ecological sub-region, lake size, and water residence time. Parameters studied included phytoplankton communities, chlorophyll a, algal growth potential, benthic macroinvertebrates, sediment particle size, and standard water chemistry variables. The lakes were sampled during October, when water temperature still exceeded 20 degree C (just missing the summer index period, thought to represent a worst case situation). This approach appeared to be useful in identifying impaired lakes. Biologically based measurements which were effective at discriminating between reference and test lakes (combining data from all ecoregions) included benthic taxa richness, benthic diversity, Hulbert's Lake Condition Index, % suspension feeders,the Ephemeroptera/Trichoptera/Odonata Index, % Ephemeroptera, % Amphipoda, phytoplankton density,and phytoplankton chlorophyll a. The Trophic State Index was able to distinguish between the lake categories, but was less satisfactory than the biological measurements in deciding relative lake health. A composite assessment index (the Florida Index of Lake Integrity), which utilizes the above mentioned biological parameters in its calculation, has been proposed.
#|Frye, R S ; Belden, R S.  You can't go home again: How anti-backsliding and antidegradation concepts from NPDES may plague CAA Title V permits as well.  JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL PERMITTING vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 387-398, 1993.  Two of the most vexatious aspects of wastewater discharge permitting under the Clean Water Act are the EPA policies on anti-backsliding and antidegradation. Although neither of these limitations was included in the Clean Water Act prior to 1987, they were developed and defended by EPA as logical steps to further the goals of the Clean Water Act. EPA's operating permit regulations under Title V of the Clean Air Act do not contain explicit anti-backsliding or antidegradation provisions. The history of the ad hoc development of anti-backsliding and antidegradation rules under the Clean Water Act, as well as the development of the Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program under the Clean Air Act, suggests that the natural evolution of the Title V operating permit program may be towards restrictions similar to those currently faced by NPDES permittees.
#|Fuksa, J K.  Attached and suspended biomass in streams: The share of biodegradation capacity.  THE ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF RIVER BOTTOM.  Bretschko, G ; Helesic, J ; Kubicek, F  (eds ).  FOLIA FAC. SCI. NAT. UNIV. MASARYK. BRUN. no. 91 pp. 25-28, 1995.  Symposium: River Bottom III, 1993 Sep 28-30.  MASARYK UNIVERSITY.  BRNO (CZECH REP.)  Respiration capacity of the attached component of heterotrophic biomass in two streams was measured using asbestos-cement plates previously overgrown by biomass as a model. In a shallow polluted brook attached biomass is responsible for more than 80% of total respiration capacity of the stream. In a big river the share of attached biomass is small. Nevertheless the difference of attached respiration before and under a pollution effluent is more distinct than that of suspended (drifting) biomass.
#|Fulmer, Donald G. The restoration potential of reservoirs in four Ohio ecoregions.  1993. (M.S.)--Kent State University.
#|Gagne, F ; Blaise, C.  Available intracellular Zn as a potential indicator of heavy metal exposure in rainbow trout hepatocytes.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND WATER QUALITY vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 319-325, 1996.  The measurement of available Zn in rainbow trout hepatocytes exposed to a selection of heavy metals was evaluated as a potential end point for assessing heavy metal exposure. Induction of metallothionein, a well-known biomarker for heavy metal exposure, was also evaluated concurrently with available Zn measurements. Rainbow trout hepatocytes were exposed to several concentrations of copper, cadmium, mercury, silver, arsenite, and zinc salts for 48 h at 15 degree C. Hepatocytes were also exposed to industrial effluent from a metallurgy plant. After the exposure period, hepatocytes were analyzed for metallothionein (MT) and available Zn levels. The results showed that, with divalent metals, available Zn increased with MT levels there was a significant correlation (R = 0,600 p = 0.0006) between the two. Moreover, the industrial effluent proved to be an inducer of available Zn in hepatocytes, as well as of MT. However, cells exposed to Ag responded with higher levels of available Zn before showing a corresponding MT induction in cells. Inversely, exposure to arsenite led to increased MT without any change in available Zn levels. The value for available Zn tended to be somewhat overestimated in the presence of metals such as Hg, and to a lesser extent Cd. The evaluation of available Zn, in addition to MT, appears to be a valid way of assessing exposure to mono- and divalent metals, though with arsenite, the MT induction response was higher than that of available Zn. The specificity of the available Zn biomarker for heavy metal exposure should be investigated more thoroughly for comparison with the MT biomarker. The measurement of available Zn holds promise as a new biomarker of heavy metal exposure.
#|Gagne,-F.; Blaise,-C. Hepatic metallothionein level and mixed function oxidase activity in fingerling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after acute exposure to pulp and paper mill effluents. WATER-RES. 1993  vol. 27, no. 11, pp. 1669-1682.  Hepatic metallothionein (MT) levels and mixed function oxidase (MFO) activity (7-ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase or EROD) were measured in fingerling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to sublethal concentrations of 12 pulp and paper effluents, after completion of 96 h static acute lethality assays. Barring one primary-treated effluent where MFO levels were significantly depressed and two secondary-treated effluents where no significant MFO induction were observed, all other effluents triggered significant induction of MT and EROD, regardless of mill process/treatment or of effluent lethality and chemical characteristics. MT and EROD inductions were significant, however, at higher concentrations for secondary-treated effluents than for primary-treated ones. Lethal (96 h LC sub(50)s) to sublethal (MT and EROD lowest observable effect concentrations) ratios were variable and indicated that significant biochemical effects were present at effluent concentrations that were roughly 4-33 (MT) and 3-59 (EROD) times lower than the LC sub(50). Enzyme induction ranged from 1.3 to 2.5-fold for MT and from 1.3 to 9.4-fold for EROD compared to controls. Limited chemical data available suggest that there were indeed classes of compounds present capable of inducing MT or EROD. Observed patterns of MT/MFO responses also suggest that contaminant interactions may have interfered with induction for some of the effluents studied. Refinements of this combined (sub)lethal bioassay procedure are envisaged to determine whether it can provide an efficient means of detecting hazardous chemicals in industrial wastewaters.
#|Gagnon, M M ; Bussieres, D ; Dodson, J J ; Hodson, P V. White sucker (Catostomus commersoni) growth and sexual maturation in pulp mill-contaminated and reference rivers.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 317-327, 1995.  Induction of hepatic ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity and accumulation of chlorophenolic compounds typical of bleached-kraft mill effluent (BKME) in fish sampled downstream of a pulp mill on the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada, provided evidence of chemical exposure to BKME. In comparison, fish sampled over the same distances and in similar habitats in a noncontaminated reference river, the Gatineau River, demonstrated low EROD activity and contamination levels. Accelerated growth of white suckers occurred between 2 and 10 years of age in both rivers at downstream stations relative to upstream stations, suggesting the existence of gradients of nutrient enrichment independent of BKME contamination. The impact of BKME exposure was expressed as reduced investment in reproduction, as revealed by greaterlength at maturity, reduced gonad size, and more variable fecundity. These effects were not obvious in simple upstream-downstream comparisons, but became evident when fish from the uncontaminated Gatineau River showed increased gonadal development and reduced age and size at maturity in response to enhanced growth rates.
#|Gagnon, M M ; Dodson, J J ; Hodson, P V ; Van Der Kraak, G ; Carey, J H.  Seasonal effects of bleached kraft mill effluent on reproductive parameters of white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) populations of the St. Maurice River, Quebec, Canada.  CANADIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 337-347, 1994.  Reproductive parameters and accumulation of chlorophenolic compounds by white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) populations exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) were studied in the St. Maurice River, Quebec. Compared with unexposed populations from the same waterway, exposed white sucker showed obvious effects of chemical exposure as far as 100 km downstream of the mill, as revealed by a strong induction of ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity. In males, circulating plasma testosterone levels were the same at all sites, while 11-ketotestosterone levels were significantly lower at exposed stations. In females, testosterone and 17 beta -estradiol levels were significantly reduced at the two exposed stations relative to the reference station. Despite different hormone levels during sexual maturation, gonad weight as a proportion of carcass weight was similar at all sites for both sexes during early gonadal development.  The relationship between carcass weight and fecundity was more variable at the station immediately downstream of the mill. Biochemical and physiological parameters measured in this study do not allow us toclearly relate perturbations in plasma steroid levels to impaired reproduction as measured by gonad weight and fecundity.
#|Gallagher,-L.M.; Miller,-L.A. TI:  Clean water handbook, 2nd edition. ROCKVILLE, MD. GOVERNMENT INSTITUTES, 1996. 452 pp. The completely updated 2nd Edition provides a comprehensive roadmap to the latest requirements, legal theories, and critical issues of water pollution control law. The handbook covers a wide range of programs and requirements that have developed over the years through statutory changes, regulatory enactments, and court decisions. Chapters include: The NPDES Permit Program; Effluent Limitations; Whole Effluent Toxicity Control; The Pretreatment Program; Storm Water and Nonpoint Source Discharges; Preventing, Reporting, and Responding to Spills; Dredge and Fill Permits; and Enforcement.
#|Galvez F, Hogstrand C, Wood M.  Physiological responses of juvenile rainbow trout to chronic low level exposures of waterborne silver.  COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY C-PHARMACOLOGY TOXICOLOGY & ENDOCRINOLOGY 119: (2) 131-137 FEB 1998.  The physiological effects of chronic exposure to AgNO3 in moderately hard freshwater were investigated in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum). Two separate 28-day exposures were performed at silver concentrations of 0.5 and 2.0 mu g/L in flowing Hamilton dechlorinated tap water. Exposure to 0.5 mu g/L Ag resulted in a slight increase (similar to 14.9%) in food consumption, whereas growth rates remained unaltered. Both plasma Na+ and Cl- levels were significantly decreased by 11.8% and 9.3%, respectively at day 16 of the exposure. Hepatic Ag concentrations were elevated approximately 4-fold in 0.5 mu g/L Ag-exposed fish. However, no significant increases in liver metallothionein (MT) concentrations were noted. No mortalities were observed during this 28-day exposure. In comparison, chronic exposure to 2.0 mu g/L Ag resulted in a 28.8% decrease in food consumption and a 43.0% reduction in growth rate. Plasma [Na+] was decreased by 18.3%, whereas plasma [Cl-] was reduced by 12.2% at day 7. At both concentrations of silver, plasma ion concentrations appeared to recover thereafter. Silver accumulated steadily in the liver up until day 15 when concentrations were 39.7 mu g/g wet weight (285-fold increase) above control levels. In addition, MT levels were increased by 81.2% at day 7.  Silver exposure at 2.0 mu g/L resulted in approximately 15.0% mortality over the 28-day period.
#|Galvez F, Wood CM.  The relative importance of water hardness and chloride levels in modifying the acute toxicity of silver to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 16: (11) 2363-2368 NOV 1997.  Static-renewal 7-d toxicity tests for silver nitrate (AgNO3) were performed with juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum). The relative influences of calcium and chloride concentrations on median lethal time (LT50) were assessed. Calcium concentrations were controlled by adding either Ca(NO3)(2) or CaSO4, whereas chloride concentrations were adjusted with either NaCl or KCI. For both calcium salts, a 100-fold elevation in concentration increased the LT50 approximately IO-fold. However, a 100-fold elevation in KCl ameliorated silver (Ag) toxicity at least 100-fold, while NaCl protected against Ag toxicity even more substantially, demonstrating the much greater protective effect of chloride relative to calcium. In a separate series of bioassays, fish were exposed to 0.92 mu M Ag (100 mu g/L as AgNO4) with varying amounts of NaCl titrated into each tank to alter the free [Ag+]. The 7-d LC50 occurred at a [NaCl] of 2,500 mu M.  Using MINEQL(+) (a geochemical speciation program), the predicted free [Ag+] at this LC50 value is 0.0285 mu M. Further bioassays were performed in which [chloride] was maintained at either 50 or 225 mu M, while total [Ag] was independently varied from 0.0092 to 0.0694 mu M (1.0-7.5 mu g/L). The 7-d LC50 value was calculated at 0.0294 mu M Ag (3.18 mu g/L) at a chloride concentration of 50 mu M, very similar to the free [Ag+] value of 0.031 mu M calculated from an earlier LC50 test at a fixed [chloride] of 730 mu M. According to MINEQL(+), the estimated [Ag+] at this LC50 value is 0.0289 mu M. Although a 7-d LC50 value could not be determined at 225 mu M chloride, it was estimated at slightly above 0.0277 mu M Ag+. Elevating chloride concentrations from 50 to 225 mu M did not alter the accumulation of Ag in the liver In addition, there were no significant differences in hepatic Ag accumulation between any of the Ag-exposed fish, irrespective of the total Ag concentration used during the exposure. Overall, Ag accumulated to approximately 185 mu mol/kg wet weight in all Ag-exposed groups (approximately a 10-fold increase above controls). These results, together with a reanalysis of published data, suggest that Ag toxicity can be correlated with the free AE ion [Ag+], and that any factors altering Ag+ availability (i.e., chloride) will be expected to modify acute Ag toxicity.
#|Galvez, F ; Hogstrand, C ; McGeer, J ; Bureau, D ; Wood, C M.  The physiological effects of dietary silver exposure in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  Andren, A W ; Bober, T W  (eds).  REPORT NUMBER: WISCU-W-96-001.  pp. 165-174, 1996.  Int. Conf. Transport, Fate and Effects of Silver in the Environment.  Madison, WI (USA), 1996 Aug 25-28.  Previous studies performed on adult rainbow trout have suggested that the toxic mechanism of acute waterborne Ag exposure (as AgNO sub(3) in moderately hard freshwater) involves a severe branchial ionoregulatory disturbance (Morgan et al, 1996 Wood et al, 1996a) resulting in a sharp decline of both plasma [Na super(+)] and [Cl super(-)]. It is further proposed that death may ensue due to circulatory collapse, as a result of ionoregulatory-induced hemoconcentration. However, probably of more environmental importance (at least in freshwater fish) is that Ag levels were found to be significantly elevated in tissues such as the liver, following acute exposure (Hogstrand et al, 1996 Wood et al, 1996b). At Argentum III (Washington, D.C., August 5-9, 1995) concern was raised of the implications of Ag transfer along the food chain. Despite our current knowledge of the toxic mechanisms of acute exposure of waterborne Ag, little is known concerning the effects of dietary silver exposure in aquatic animals. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the physiological effects of food chain transfer of biologically incorporated silver.
#|GAO JL, & XIA XF. (1994).  SIMULATING SOLVENT EFFECTS ON REACTIVITY AND INTERACTIONS IN AMBIENT AND SUPERCRITICAL WATER.  ACS SYMPOSIUM SERIES, V568, P212-228. The effects of hydration on the rate acceleration of the Claisen rearrangement of allyl vinyl ether and the Menshutkin reaction of ammonia and methyl chloride were investigated by a hybrid quantum mechanical and classical Monte Carlo simulation method. In addition, the potentials of mean force for the ion pair Na+Cl- in ambient and supercritical water were determined. The results provided valuable insights on intermolecular interactions for these processes in solution.
#|Garric, J ; Vindimian, E ; Ferard, J F.  Ecotoxicology and wastewater: Some practical applications.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON ECOTOXICOLOGY.  Sloof, W ; de Kruijf, H  (eds ).  SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT vol. Suppl. Pts. 1-2 pp. 1085-1103.  1993.  2. European Conf. on Ecotoxicology.  Amsterdam (Netherlands), 1992 May 11-15.  This paper summarizes the information obtained from an international survey dealing with the use of chronic bioassays for the control of wastewaters. The results indicated that several relevant, sensitive and cost-effective laboratory chronic tests are available using different freshwater and marine species: fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algae. These tests are implemented in several countries for the control of effluents. The use of toxicological endpoints is an essential complementary step to permit and to control wastewater discharges. From some results of toxicity tests available, Ceriodaphnia reproduction tests in a stepwise approach seem to generate the most useful information.
#|Garric, J ; Volat, B ; Nguyen, D K ; Bray, M ; Migeon, B ; Kosmala, A.  Ecotoxicological and chemical characterization of municipal wastewater treatment plant effluents.  HAZARD ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS IN WATER.  Nyholm, N ; Jacobsen, B N  (eds ).  WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 33, no. 6 pp. 83-91, 1996.  The toxicity and the chemical quality of three municipal wastewater effluents have been studied. Acute and sub-chronic bioassays were carried out. We also measured the induction of the hepatic ethoxy resorufin-O-deethylase enzymatic activity (EROD) of fish exposed to the effluents. Chemical analysis allowed to identify the most frequent substances detected in the effluents. From chemical data and results of bioassays we conclude that ammonia concentration explains a part of the lethal toxicity. But chronic toxicity tests carried out with whole effluents or extracted chemical fractions showed that organic pollutants detected in the effluents could also cause long-term effect.  All the tested effluents induced fish EROD activity. The instream invertebrates monitoring confirmed the municipal wastewater treatment plant impact on the receiving water.
#|Gaudet, C. E., Lingard, S., Cureton, P., Keenleyside, K., Smith, S., & Raju, G.  1995.  Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines for Mercury.  Water Air Soil Pollut v80, n1-4, p1149(11). The Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, which are based on a published national protocol that ensures consistent decision-making and quality of scientific data, provide an important framework for protecting aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The current derivation procedures for Canadian Water Quality Guidelines, Soil Quality Criteria, and Sediment Quality Guidelines are outlined, and proposed guidelines for mercury are presented. For each of the guidelines, the methods are described, and results are presented for Hg.
#|Gauthier, L.; Van der Gaag, M. A.; L'Haridon, J.; Ferrier, V.; Fernandez, M.  Comparison of Ecotoxicological and Physico-Chemical Data by Use of Multivariate Analyses and Graphical Displays.  Chemosphere  v28, n12, p2249(19) Jun 94.  A macroinvertebrate multi-test assay based on species representative of different trophic levels was designed to examine the ecotoxicological impact of effluents and chemicals in aquatic systems. Multivariate analyses and graphical displays of raw data were applied tocompare the sensitivity of selected macroinvertebrates among themselves andin relation to those in three standard bioassays. These techniques were also used to rank effluents according to their toxicity and physicochemical composition. Their utility in interpretation of toxicology results was demonstrated.
#|Gauthier, L.; Van der Gaag, M. A.; L'Haridon, J.; Ferrier, V.; Fernandez, M. In Vivo Detection of Waste Water and Industrial Effluent Genotoxicity: Use of the Newt Micronucleus Test (Jaylet Test).  Sci Total Environ  v138, n1-3, p249(21) Sep 30, 93.  Aquatic larvae of the pleurodele newt, Pleurodeles waltl, were exposed to various types of industrial wastewater to examine the ability of the Newt Micronucleus Test (Jaylet Test) to reveal the genotoxic potency of polluted waters. Water samples included the River Dadou in France, an effluent from an oil-refinery site, and and effluent from a petrochemical industrial complex. The general principle of the Jaylet Test is described.  The results of the in vivo test showed that it was very effective in determining the genotoxicity of each water and wastewater sample evaluated.
#|Gauthier, L.; Van der Gaag, M. A.; L'Haridon, J.; Ferrier, V.; Fernandez, M. Comparison of Artemia Feeding Regimens on Larval Growth in a Short-Term Fathead Minnow Toxicity Test.  Bull Environ Contam Toxicol  v50, n2, p179(8) Feb 93.  Fathead minnow larvae are used to monitor the toxicity of wastewater effluents for compliance with EPA standards. The standard ration consists of 700-1000 shrimp/0.1 ml fed to a tank of 10 minnow larvae at a rate of 0.1 ml or 0.15 ml three or two times daily, respectively. Control minnows must average at least 0.25 mg/fish dry weight at the end of the test, and mortality must be </=20%. In this study, the feeding schedule and ration were varied to see whether growth could be optimized without overfeeding. In one study, fish were fed one to four times daily with 0.1, 0.3, 0.6, or 0.9 ml of the standard ration. Mean growth was not affected by feeding frequency or ration. When fish were fed at a rate of 0-1240 shrimp one to three times daily, growth was related to both the number of shrimp fed, and the feeding schedule. Growth in the groups fed two or three times per day was statistically similar. Therefore, a regimen of feeding twice daily was recommended.
#|GbonoTugbawa S; Driscoll CT.  Application of the Regional Mercury Cycling Model (RMCM) to predict the fate and remediation of mercury in Onondaga Lake, New York.  WATER AIR AND SOIL POLLUTION, 1998, V105, N1-2 (JUL), P417-426.  Onondaga Lake exhibits elevated concentrations of total mercury (Hg-T) and methyl-mercury (MeHg) in the water column, sediments and fish tissue due to industrial inputs, wastewater discharge and urban runoff. The steady-state Regional Mercury Cycling Model (RMCM) was calibrated to Onondaga Lake and applied to evaluate various remediation scenarios. Because of detailed data available for Onondaga Lake, the RMCM was effectively calibrated. Model predictions of water column and fish concentrations of Hg generally agreed with measured values. The model underestimated concentrations of Hg in sediments. Mass balance calculations show that inputs of Hg-T largely originate from tributary and wastewater inflows to the lake. In contrast, MeHg is largely derived from internal production. Model calculations suggest that elimination of Hg inputs from wastewater effluent and of drainage from a former chlor-alk alifacility could greatly decrease Hg concentrations in fish tissue.
#|GELDREICH EE.  PATHOGENIC AGENTS IN FRESHWATER RESOURCES.HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES, 1996, V10, N2 (FEB), P315-333.  Numerous pathogenic agents have been found in freshwaters used as sources for water supplies, recreational bathing and irrigation. These agents include bacterial pathogens, enteric viruses, several protozoans and parasitic worms more common to tropical waters. Although infected humans are a major source of pathogens, farm animals (cattle, sheep, pigs), animal pets (dogs, cats) and wildlife serve as significant reservoirs and should not be ignored. The range of infected individuals within a given warm-blooded animal group (humans included) may range from 1 to 25%. Survival times for pathogens in the water environment may range from a few days to as much as a year (Ascaris, Taenia eggs), with infective dose levels varying from one viable cell for several primary pathogenic agents to many thousands of cells for a given opportunistic pathogen. As pathogen detection in water is complex and not readily incorporated into routine monitoring, a surrogate is necessary. In general, indicators of faecal contamination provide a positive correlation with intestinal pathogen occurrences only when appropriate sample volumes are examined by sensitive methodology. Pathways by which pathogens reach susceptible water users include ingestion of contaminated water, body contact with polluted recreational waters and consumption of salad crops irrigated by polluted freshwaters. Major contributors to the spread of various water-borne pathogens are sewage, polluted surface waters and stormwater runoff. All of these contributions are intensified during periods of major floods. Several water-borne case histories are cited as examples of breakdowns in public health protection related to water supply, recreational waters and the consumption of contaminated salad crops. In the long term, water resource management must focus on pollution prevention from point sources of waste discharges and the spread of pathogens in watershed stormwater runoff.
#|Genereux,-D.-P.; Hemond,-H.-F.; Mulholland,-P.-J.  Spatial and Temporal Variability in Streamflow Generation on the West Fork of Walker Branch Watershed. Journal of Hydrology JHYDA7, Vol. 142, No. 1/4, p 137-166, February 1993.  Spatially-intensive measurements of streamflow were used to document the spatial and temporal variability in streamflow generation on the West Fork of Walker Branch Watershed, a 38.4-ha forested catchment in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The study focused on a 300-m section of a small stream, and covered a wide range of flow conditions (streamflow at the weir, i.e. at the basin outlet, varied from about 350 to 3500 L/min). There was enormous spatial variability in the stream inflow, down to the finest scale investigated (reaches 20 m in length). Lateral inflow to longer reaches (60-130 m) was linearly correlated with the streamflow at the weir over the full range of flows studied, making it possible to estimate the spatial pattern of stream inflow from measurement of streamflow at the weir alone. The heterogeneous nature of the karstic dolomite bedrock was the dominant control on the observed spatial variability in streamflow generation. This thesis is consistent with the results of field investigations using natural tracers. Bedrock structure and lithology may affect streamflow generation directly (via water movement through fractured rock), and indirectly (by influencing the slope and thickness of the overlying soil). While the West Fork contains all the topographic and surface hydrologic features of larger basins (ridge tops, valleys, hollows, spurs, ephemeral and perennial stream channels), it covers an area which is relatively small with respect to the bedrock heterogeneity. Therefore, while the hydrologic processes observed on the West Fork are no doubt typical of those occurring elsewhere in karst terrain, the particular patterns of spatial and temporal variability observed are somewhat specific to the study site.
#|Gerhardt A(a); Carlsson A; Ressemann C; Stich K P.  New online biomonitoring system for Gammarus pulex (L.) (Crustacea): In situ test below a copper effluent in south Sweden.  Environmental Science & Technology  32 (1):p150-156 Jan., 1998. Online biomonitors register biological effects of toxic discharges on selected indicator species and allow for fast, continuous, and ecological relevant water quality control. This paper presents a new online biomonitor based on a quadropole impedance conversion technique that records simultaneously several behavioral parameters of Gammarus pulex, a new biomonitoring test species. The behavior of two different populations of G. pulex was compared; one population originated from an anthropogenically unpolluted stream, and the other population lived at the copper-polluted study site, where the biomonitor was placed. Responses to simulated copper pollution peaks of 70 mug of Cu2+/L were registered in the biomonitor and compared to the natural drift. G. pulex was the most abundant species in the natural drift. A nocturnal drift maximum was found in the natural drift and for both populations in the biomonitor. Mortality was high in the biomonitor, the local population survived slightly better than the reference population. The reference population showed significantly less activity than the local population measured as number of active organisms per day and time spent on locomotion and ventilation. Copper pollution pulses provoked increases in number of active organisms and time spent on locomotion in the biomonitor; however, no significant changes in the natural drift were registered.
#|Gerhardt A. Whole effluent toxicity testing with Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum 1792): Survival and behavioral responses to a dilution series of a miningeffluent in South Africa. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  35 (2):p 309-316 Aug., 1998.  Survival, behavioral early warning responses to, and behavioral effects of a complex effluent from Richards Bay Minerals in Natal, South Africa, were studied using rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum 1792) as a biosensor. Three replicates of eight juvenile fish were exposed to a dilution series of the effluent (0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 75, 100%) and the behavioral pattern (ventilation, locomotion) was measured online with quadropole impedance conversion. Survival decreased with increasing effluent concentration. Before death, O. mykiss coloration darkened, demonstrating skewed bodies subsequently after death. Decreased activity and increased ventilation combined with increased ventilation frequency were found within the first 2 h of exposure at gtoreq96-h LC50 value of 10% effluent concentration indicating early warning responses. During 4 days of exposure, activity decreased and ventilation increased further at concentrations around the 96-h LC50 value indicating toxic effects.
#|Gernaey Krist; Verschuere Laurent; Luyten Leen; Verstraete Willy.  Fast and sensitive acute toxicity detection with an enrichment nitrifying culture.  Water Environment Research  69 (6):p1163-1169 1997.  Current stringent effluent discharge limits for nitrogen and the high sensitivity of nitrifying bacteria to inhibition by toxic compounds encourage the development of methods for acute nitrification toxicity screening of wastewater. For this purpose, a rapid (response time of 14 minutes) and simple respirometric procedure using an enrichment nitrifying culture is presented. Allyl thiourea was used as a selective nitrification inhibitor. The concentration of a toxic compound causing a 50% decrease of nitrifying activity compared to the nontoxic reference measurement with tap water (EC-50) was determined for different reference chemicals. The (EC-50) values obtained with the nitrifying culture (0.51 mg/L for 3,5-dichlorophenol, 2.67 mg/L for phenol, 0.078 mg/L for CN-, 173 mg/L for Cu++, and 8.3 mg/L for Cd++) revealed that the method described combined a high sensitivity with acceptable repeatability.  Because of its simplicity and short response time, the proposed procedure seems suitable for on-line acute nitrification toxicity detection at wastewater treatment plants.
#|Gilbertson, M. Advances in forensic toxicology for establishing causality between Great Lakes epizootics and specific persistent toxic chemicals.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 16, no. 9, pp. 1771-1778, 1997.  Populations of fish, wildlife, and humans in the Great Lakes basin have been injured during this century by exposures to organochlorine pollutants. The evidence presented by scientists working on these outbreaks of chemically induced disease has been received with scepticism among officials, who have expressed a desire for a "proven" cause and effect before further costly regulatory and remedial action is taken. Scientists have adapted epidemiological criteria to infer causal relationships between the injury and exposures to specific chemicals. These forensic statements are different from traditional toxicological statements about potential effects. There is a priority need to institutionalize this methodology within governments to complement established risk assessment techniques.
#|Glass,-P.W.; Jordan,-B.L.; Mancini,-J.L.; Mathews,-J.  WET testing faces diazinon dilemma.  WATER-ENVIRON.-TECHNOL. 1995  vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 29-30. Approximately 30% of the publicly owned treatment works in EPA Region 6 that are conducting toxicity reduction evaluations (TREs) have identified diazinon, a widely used pesticide, as the primary cause of whole effluent toxicity (WET) test failures. Diazinon concentrations as low as 0.12 mu g/L are toxic to the commonly used biomonitoring test organism, Ceriodaphnia dubia. The diazinon dilemma is one example of the problems that wastewater treatment plant operators are having with WET requirements. In many cases, there is not a single cause of the test failures. Rather, failures result from random occurrences (spills, illicit or inadvertent discharges, modifications or disruption in plant operations). In most cases, it is impossible for a city to ensure that a substance that may cause a test failure is never introduced to the sewer system. Municipal wastewater treatment plants cannot be designed to treat every substance that can cause a test failure.
#|Glenn, M.K. The interplay between permits, self-audits, and statutes of limitations.  J. ENVIRON. PERMITTING  VOL. 4, NO. 1, pp. 37-47, 1994-1995.  EPA appears to be developing a new theory to support civil penalty claims that "first accrued" more than five years before a penalty proceeding was/is commenced by the government. It results from 3M v. Browner, in which the D.C. Circuit rejected an EPA-proposed "discovery of violation" rule for starting the five-year statute of limitations period, and from the Justice Department's recent decision not to seek Supreme Court review. So EPA is postulating a new "continuing violation" concept for civil penalty claims, which would have the five-year period not start running until a violation is corrected (presumably even later than when it is discovered!). EPA has said that the five-year period does not start running, for example, until the sale of an illegally imported chemical is stopped, until a facility operating without a required wastewater discharge permit stops discharging or obtains a permit, or until an unauthorized release or spill is cleaned up.  In effect, EPA is interpreting the word "first" to mean "last"! Or, when the relevant law only provides that penalties may be assessed for each day that a one-act violation "continues," EPA is interpreting this to mean that each day the violation persists also can be treated as a "separate" or new violation for statute of limitations purposes as well. This article examines the issue of "continuing violations" in relation to federal civil penalty claims and how that issue may affect certain permit compliance and self-audit activities.
#|Gorsuch JW. Klaine SJ.  TOXICITY AND FATE OF SILVER IN THE ENVIRONMENT.  Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry. 17(4):537-538, 1998 Apr.
#|Gossett, L B. Section 401 water quality certification in federal permitting.  Environ. Regul. Permitting vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 81-89, 1998.  Section 401 of the Clean Water Act requires that any applicant for a federal license or permit for any activity that "may result in a discharge into navigable water" shall provide the federal agency with"a certification from the State" that the discharge will comply with various requirements, including state water quality standards. The states vary in their implementation of Section 401. This article provides an overview of the certification requirements in Section 401, the scope of activities to which it applies, the implementation procedures adopted by some states and agencies, and the case law applying or interpreting Section 401.
#|Goudey-J.S.  Aquatic Toxicity Workshop: Proceedings 1996. Canadian technical report of fisheries and aquatic sciences no. no. 2144. Annual publication.  1997. 212p. These annual workshops for personnel from industry, governments & universities cover topics from basic aquatic toxicology to applications in environmental monitoring, setting of regulations & guidelines, and the development of sediment & water quality criteria. Topics include these: Toxicity testing for gas plant decommissioning; fate assessment of contaminants in groundwater (regulatory issues); ecological risk assessment in the petroleum industry; oil sands; mining; Arctic contamination; environmental toxicology; ecological endpoints; new developments in toxicity test & risk assessment methods; sediment testing; soil ecotoxicology; toxicity identification & evaluation; regulatory harmonization; pulp & paper environmental effects monitoring; & pulp & paper mill effluent tracers in fish. As well as papers or abstracts, poster presentations are described.
#|Goudreau, S.E.; Neves, R.J.; Sheehan, R.J.  Effects of wastewater treatment plant effluents on freshwater mollusks in the upper Clinch River, Virginia, USA.  HYDROBIOLOGIA  VOL. 252, NO. 3, pp. 211-230, 1993.  Field and laboratory studies were conducted to determine mollusk distributions in proximity to wastewater treatment plants (WTP's) in the upper Clinch River and to test the tolerance of two mollusk species to monochloramine and unionized ammonia, the major toxicants in domestic effluent.  River reaches up to 3.7 km downstream of WTP's were devoid of freshwater mussels (Unionidae), and tolerance to effluents varied among snails, sphaeriid clams, and the Asian clam Corbicula fluminea.  Residential communities with septic systems had no measurable impact on mollusk assemblages downstream.  Laboratory bioassays with glochidia of Villosa iris yielded the following results: 24 h EC sub(50) and LC sub(50) values of 0.042 mg/l and 0.084 mg/l monochloramine, respectively; and 24 h EC sub(50) and LC sub(50) of 0.237 mg/l and 0.284 mg/l unionized ammonia, respectively.  Glochidia rank among the most sensitive invertebrates in their tolerance to these toxicants. The snail Pleurocera unciale unciale was moderately sensitive, with 96 h LC sub(50) values of 0.252 mg/l monochloramine and 0.742 mg/l unionized ammonia.  Monitoring of monochloramine and unionized ammonia concentrations 0.1 km below WTP outfalls indicated that monochloramine was the toxicant likely inhibiting mollusk recovery below these plants.
#|Goulder, R.; Carr, O. J.  Pollution from Fish Farms.  Univ Coll of Wales/et al Pollut in Livestock Prod Syst Symp, Bangor, UK (CAB Int)  p205(21) 1994.  Water pollution caused by a small trout farm facility in northeast England and a large trout farm on the River Hull, UK, was studied. At the small farm, water samples were taken at the farm inlet and outflow to a calcareous stream and analyzed for phosphorus (P), inorganic nitrogen (), turbidity, phosphatase activity, and standard water quality parameters. The farm uses a settling lagoon for effluent treatment, but performance is poor. Soluble inorganic and organic P, particulate P, ammonia N, turbidity, and bacterial abundance all increased at the outlet.  Fish feed was the main source of P. At the large trout farm, total bacteria and bacterial metabolism increased downstream, as did inorganic and organic P and phosphatase activity. Enhanced growth of periphytic algae and growth of aquatic macrophytes also was observed.
#|Graca, M. A. S.; Coimbra, C. N.  The elaboration of indices to assess biological water quality. A case study.  Water Research (Oxford)  vol. 32 (2):  p.380-392, 1998.  The application of a nodal analysis for the elaboration of biotic indices for polluting conditions was tested in an intermittent Mediterranean stream where superficial flow was absent during summer. The river was perturbed by an effluent with high pH, sulfates, nitrates and conductivity.  'Summer' and 'winter' samples were treated separately.  Groups of sites differing in taxonomical composition were identified by cluster analysis. The groups of sites were then tested for differences in their abiotic characteristics.  Groups of co-occurring taxa were also identified by cluster analysis. The indicator value of a taxa group was measured by fidelity measurements for site groups. Indicator taxa were incorporated in a water quality table.  The biotic index in the water quality table clearly distinguished impacted from reference sites in the two following years and was correlated with the first axis of a correspondence analysis biplot which also discriminated impacted from clean sites.  Nodal analysis can be a reliable technique for the identification of bioindicators and the elaboration of biotic indices.
#|Granberg, K.  The impact of effluents of Pitkaeranta pulp mill on the water quality of Lake Ladoga: A model study.  PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL LAKE LADOGA SYMPOSIUM: ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF LAKE LADOGA HELD IN ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA, 22-26 NOVEMBER 1993.  Simola, H ; Viljanen, M ; Slepukhina, T ; Murthy, R  (eds ). HYDROBIOLOGIA vol. 322, no. 1-3 pp. 159-166, 1996.  The aim of this study is to show the effects of the Pitkaeranta pulp mill on the water quality of Northern Ladoga by using water quality models. The effluent loading of the pulp mill with its full production capacity is as follows: Water flow: 85 000 m super(3)/d, BOD sub(5): 2.4 t/d, Suspended solids: 4.1 t/d, tot-N: 330 kg/d, tot-P: 68 kg/d, COD(Cr): 14.4 t/d, Org. C: 6 t/d, Lignosulphonates: 9.4 t/d. Loadings of lignosulphonates and organic C are estimations. Lignosulphonate concentrations of 10.5 mg l super(-1) have been reported in the region of Pitkaeranta. The study area of northern Ladoga near the pulp mill was divided into three zones (I, II and III). The mean depth of each of them is considered as 10 m, their respective areas 5, 10 and 50 km super(2), and volumes 50, 100 and 500 million m super(3). The estimated discharges of the zones are 10, 20 and 50 m super(3)/s, respectively. With the aid of simple water quality models the effects of the pulp mill effluents on the concentrations of oxygen, total phosphorus, lignin, COD(Mn) and Secchi disk depths in each of the zones were estimated. Estimations were made during full production capacity and half production capacity of the pulp mill. The modelling results were compared with the preliminary water analysis results of the Finnish-Russian joint research expedition into Lake Ladoga in August 1993. The results show that near the pulp mill (zone I) phosphorus concentrations are high even with half production capacity.  Also lignin and COD(Mn) contents have increased, and oxygen concentrations are low both in the summer and during wintertime. Farther away in the open water (zone III) the pollution effects are low. Eutrophication, indicated by high total phosphorus concentrations, is the main effect of the pulp mill effluents.
#|Grassi, M. T., Shi, B., & Allen, H. E.  (1997).  Sorption of copper by suspended particulate matter.  Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects v 120 n 1-3, p 199-203. The sorption of copper by suspended particulate matter from river water was investigated as a function of pH and solids concentration. Water was collected from the Delaware River and particulate matter was concentrated using Tangential-Flow Filtration (TFF). The adsorption of copper increased with increasing pH until pH 9.0. A decrease in copper adsorption was found for higher pH values. The adsorption of copper was greater for the samples with added copper than for the suspension for which no metal was added. An increase of copper adsorption proportional to particulate matter concentration was also observed. At both pH 6.0 and 7.0, there was a decrease in the adsorption of copper with increasing copper concentration.
#|Grasso, D. N., Jennings, M. E., & Sadler, W. J.  (1995).  Field screening of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming, 1992-93.  Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects v 120 n 1-3, Feb 21 1997,  p 199-203. USGS Open File Report: 95-121.  Physical, chemical, and biological data were collected in 1992-93 from irrigation drainage areas and wetlands of the Wind River Federal Irrigation Project, Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming. Most samples collected had concentrations of chemical constituents less than the established levels of concern for water, bottom sediment, and biota. In the Little Wind Unit irrigation area, however, selenium and mercury concentrations in water exceeded criteria established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Six water samples analyzed from the Little Wind Unit in 1993 had selenium concentrations that equaled or exceeded 5 micrograms per liter. Concentrations of mercury in water were 0.1 micrograms per liter or less, except at four sites: one sample collected in 1993 from Sharp Nose Draw (4.9 micrograms per liter) and three samples collected in 1992 from Little Wind Unit and Johnstown Unit (0.2 micrograms per liter). Mercury concentrations in all bottom-sediment samples were less than 0.02 micrograms per liter, except at Sharp Nose Pond where a concentration of 0.02 micrograms per liter was measured. Selenium concentrations in some aquatic vegetation, invertebrates, fish, bird eggs, and bird livers collected from the Little Wind Unit in 1993 exceeded established levels of concern. At Goose Pond and Sharp Nose Pond, selenium in the livers of five bird samples collected exceeded the 10 micrograms per gram level associated with reproductive failure in aquatic birds. Mercury concentrations in the livers of birds sampled at Sharp Nose Pond also were greater than suggested levels in dietary items for the protection of sensitive species of mammals and birds that regularly consume aquatic organisms.
#|Gray, R.H. Multimedia environmental monitoring: 50 Years at Hanford.  ENVIRON. MONIT. ASSESS.  vol. 26, no. 2-3, pp. 263-276  (1993) Workshop on Improving Natural Resource Management Through Monitoring , Corvallis, OR (USA) , 1992 Mar 10-11.  Environmental monitoring has been an ongoing activity on the U.S. Department of Energy's Hanford Site in southeastern Washington for almost 50 years. Objectives are to detect and assess potential impacts of Site operations on air, surface and ground waters, foodstuffs, fish, wildlife, soil and vegetation. Data from monitoring effects are used to calculate the overall radiological dose to humans working onsite or residing in nearbycommunities. In 1989, measured Hanford Site perimeter concentrations of airborne radionuclides were below applicable guidelines. Concentrations of radionuclides and nonradiological water quality in the Columbia River were in compliance with applicable standards. Foodstuffs irrigated with river water taken downstream of the Site showed radionuclide levels that were similar to those found in foodstuffs from control areas. Low levels of super(137)Cs and super(90)Sr in most onsite wildlife samples and concentrations of radionuclides in soils and vegetation from on- and offsite locations were typical of those attributable to worldwide fallout. The calculated dose potentially received by a maximally exposed individual (i.e., based on hypothetical, worst-case assumptions for all routes of exposure) in 1989 (0.05 mrem/yr) was similar to those calculated for 1985 through 1988. In addition to monitoring radioactivity in fish and wildlife, population numbers of key species are determined. Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) spawning in the Columbia River at Hanford has increased in recent years with a concomitant increase in winter roosting activity of bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). An elk (Cervus elaphus) herd, established by immigration in 1972, is also increasing. The Hanford Site currently serves as a refuge for Canada goose (Branta canadensis), great blue heron (Ardea herodias), and various plants and other animals, e.g., mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and coyotes (Canis latrans).
#|Green, Bartholomew W; Boyd, Claude E. Chemical budgets for organically fertilized fish ponds in the dry tropics. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society  26 (3):p284-296 1995.  Chemical budgets were determined for nitrogen, phosphorus, dissolved oxygen and chemical oxygen demand for three 0.1-ha earthen ponds stocked with Oreochromis niloticus at the El Carao National Fish Culture Research Center, Comayagua, Honduras, for two 150-d culture periods, corresponding to the rainy and dry seasons. Layer chicken litter was added to ponds weekly at 500 kg dry matter/ha. Concentrations of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) in pond water increased during each season. No significant seasonal differences in concentrations of water quality variables were observed. Chicken litter added to ponds represented 9294% of N input, 93-95% of P input, and 43-52% of COD input. Photosynthesis by phytoplankton provided 47-56% of COD and 98% of dissolved oxygen (DO) added to ponds. Net inward diffusion of oxygen added 1.2-1.5% of total DO. Regulated inflow was a minor source of nutrients, and contributed 3-4% of input N, 3-4% of input P, 1% of COD input, and 1% of DO input. Nutrient inputs from rain were ltoreq 1% of total for each nutrient. Fish harvest accounted for 18-21% of total N, 16-18% of total P and 2% of COD added to ponds. Community respiration accounted for 4857% of COD and 99.5% of DO added to ponds. Nutrient losses in pond effluent at draining were: 7-9% of total N, 29-37% of total P and 2-3% of COD. While measured gains exceeded measured losses, significantly greater N, P and organic matter concentrations in pre-drain samples indicated pond mud was a major sink for added nutrients; accumulation in mud represented 70% of total N, 35-40% of total P, and 38-46% of COD.
#|Griffith-G.E.; Omernik-J.M.; Wilton-T.F.; Pierson-S.M. Ecoregions and Subregions of Iowa: A Framework for Water Quality Assessment and Management. PB95137287XSP.  Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR., ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc., Corvallis, OR., Iowa Dept. of Natural Resources, Des Moines. Environmental Protection Commission. 1994. 11p. Jnl. of the Iowa Academy of Sciences 101, n1 p5-13 Ecoregion frameworks are valuable tools for inventorying and assessing environmental resources, for setting resource management goals, and for developing biological criteria and water quality standards. In a collaborative project between the Iowa Dept. of Natural Resources (DNR) and the the EPA's three major ecological regions of Iowa and defined six subregions of the Western Corn Belt Plains ecoregion within the state. Lists of candidate stream reference sites have been developed for seven regions, and the sites were visited and evaluated by Iowa DNR and U.S. EPA personnel to determine their suitability for sampling. The Iowa DNR plans to use the ecoregions and reference sites to better understand regional variations in stream quality, to assess attainable conditions, to develop biological criteria, and as a framework to report on water quality.
#|Groshens T P. Orth D J. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE TRANSFERABILITY OF HABITAT SUITABILITY CRITERIA FOR SMALLMOUTH BASS. Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University Water Resources Research Center Bulletin (180). 1993. I-Xii, 1-104. The purpose of this study was to determine whether habitat suitability criteria developed in the summer months for smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu, were transferable among streams representing different ecoregions. Habitat suitability criteria were developed for depth, mean column velocity, cover, and substrate for two size classes of smallmouth bass, 100-199 mm and .gtoreq. 200 mm, in the North Anna River and Craig Creek, Virginia. Criteria that accurately describe habitat selection by a species or guild in a system different from where the criteria were developed are said to be transferable to that system. The transferability of suitability criteria between the North Anna River and Craig Creek, as well as depth and mean column velocity criteria from Minnesota, the Huron River, Michigan, and the Upper James River, Virginia USA, to the North Anna River and Craig Creek were tested using a 2 .times. 2 contingency table analysis. Depth criteria for the smaller sizes of smallmouth bass did not transfer well between regions; four of the eight transferability tests (50%) failed. Depth criteria for larger smallmouth bass transferred to the North Anna River and Craig Creek in all cases. Velocity criteria developed for the smaller size classes did not transfer well among regions; only three of the eight transferability tests were positive. Likewise, velocity criteria for larger sizes of smallmouth bass did not transfer well; only one of eight tests were positive. General criteria were developed for depth and mean column velocity by averaging the suitability values reported from this and three other studies. General depth and velocity criteria transferred well to the North Anna River and Craig Creek for both the larger and smaller size classes of smallmouth bass; all depth tests were positive, and three of four velocity tests were positive. The improved success of transferability warrants investigation of developing general criteria for smallmouth bass. Cover criteria for both size classes of smallmouth bass were transferable from the North Anna River to Craig Creek, but not vice versa. Substrate heterogeneity criteria were not transferable between the North Anna River and Craig Creek for either size class of smallmouth bass. Criteria developed for the percentage of substrate particles .gtoreq. 15 cm (smallmouth bass .gtoreq. 200 mm only) were transferable from Craig Creek to the North Anna River but not vice versa. The transferability of habitat suitability criteria among regions was inconsistent, and it is recommended that site-specific criteria be developed for each stream to which habitat assessments are applied. Additionally, nose (focal point) velocities of smallmouth bass were more consistent between the North Anna River and Craig Creek than were mean column velocities used. Hence, it is recommended that information on nose velocities be incorporated into habitat studies to more accurately describe smallmouth bass velocity requirements.
#|Gross, R. H.  1997.  Site-Specific Criterion at a Textile Dyeing and Finishing Plant.  Assoc of Energy Eng/et al 16th World Energy Eng Congress: Energy and Pollut Control Opportunities to the Year 2000 (Fairmont Press).  p43(6). The government of South Carolina recently adopted the water quality criteria established by the EPA as standards for achieving compliance with the 1987 amendments to the Clean Water Act. The new regulations in South Carolina allow for a site-specific standard that is less strict than the EPA standards for cases in which biological testing justifies such an action. A case study is presented of the process undertaken by a textile dyeing and finishing plant to obtain the state's first site specific water quality standard. The facility in question was included in South Carolina's section 304(L) toxic discharger list due to high concentrations of copper and zinc in effluents. Biological assessments discovered significant instream impacts from the plant discharges.
#|Grothe, Donald R.; Dickson, Kenneth L.; Reed-Judkins, Donna.  Whole Effluent Toxicity Testing - an Evaluation of Methods & Prediction of Receiving System Impacts: Proceedings of the Pellston.  Workshop on Whole Effluent Toxicity, September 16-21, 1995, University of Michigan Biological Station, Douglas Lake, Pellston, Michigan. SETAC Special Publications, 1996.
#|Grothe,-D.R.  Discharge detective work. WATER-ENVIRON.-TECHNOL. 1996  vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 43-46.  During the past 10 years, whole effluent toxicity (WET) testing has become an integral component of most industrial National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. Although permit conditions vary nationwide because of site-specific factors and local or regional regulations, the primary objective of WET test is to ensure that wastewaters discharged into U.S. waters do not adversely affect aquatic life. Regulators typically incorporate a numerical WET limit into a discharge permit when a wastewater has affected or has the potential to affect the aquatic environment. Like its chemical counterpart, a WET limit gives regulators strict control over wastewater quality. Facilities that fail to meet toxicity discharge standards are subject to additional toxicity reduction evaluations (TREs), and regulatory fines.
#|Grothe,-D.R.; Johnson,-D.E.  Bacterial interference in whole-effluent toxicity tests. ENVIRON.-TOXICOL.-CHEM. 1996 vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 761-764.  Routine National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) cooling-water toxicity tests demonstrated an acute effect on Ceriodaphnia dubia and fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Test results were characterized by irregular mortality dose-response curves and a brown filamentous mass on the opercular area of affected fish. Some fish and Ceriodaphnia also became entrapped in filamentous material present on the bottom of the test vessels. Microscopic examination of test fish revealed severe fouling of the oral and branchial cavities with a mixed population of microbes, the major component being a filamentous sheathed bacteria. Treatment of water samples with a 0.45- mu m membrane filter and/or ultraviolet light sterilizer were effective in eliminating the bacteria and test organism mortalities. Regulatory test procedures were modified to allow filtration of the water prior to testing to eliminate this naturally occurring biological interference in toxicity tests.
#|Gruber, D ; Frago, C ; Rasnake, W J.  Implementation of a multiple biomonitoring approach to evaluate the potential for impact from an industrial discharge.  JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM HEALTH vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 259-271.  1994.  Over a 2-year period, an industrial discharger implemented a program to determine if there was a potential for in-stream impact from its discharge, and, if necessary, to eliminate that potential. Six basic study designs were used. These included: (1) ambient toxicity tests using indicator organisms (2) in-stream waste concentration (IWC) chronic testing using indicator organisms (3) on-site flow-through toxicity testing using indicator and resident species with receiving stream water as the diluent (4) in situ acute toxicity studies using indicator and resident species (5) biological surveys of the receiving stream and (6) artificial stream studies. The outcome of the studies resulted in conclusive data on which to base the design of a diffuser to dilute the effluent 1:20. This concentration was well below the lowest acute no-observed-effect concentration (10% effluent) determined using sensitive resident test species. In this manner, impact from the effluent on the James River had been reduced so that even the most sensitive resident species were protected. As a result of the study, the facility's permit was modified so that toxicity tests were made only on effluent diluted with receiving stream water to represent dilution at 1Q10 rather than 100 percent effluent. Follow-up studies have concentrated on a series of toxicity tests which were designed to identify the toxicants in the final effluent.
#|Guettinger, H. E.  1993.  Combined Interpretation of Biological and Chemical Field Data.  Sci Total Environ,  p1539(7). It has been hypothesized that the determination of the chemical and physical characteristics of a variety of habitats used by a specific species can be used to determine that species' tolerance limits for specific environmental parameters. This hypothesis is examined and its use in ecotoxicology is shown using ammonia. Data were gleaned from the literature to determine occurrence ranges for 697 taxonomic units of macroinvertebrates versus 28 physical and chemical parameters. Comparisons of the macroinvertebrate species show that these data can be used effectively to estimate ammonia tolerance limits. It is shown that a comparison of tolerance limits with toxicity-test data can be used also to define water-quality standards. Specific illustrations are presented.
#|Gunkel, G ; Mast, P G ; Nolte, C.  Pollution of aquatic ecosystems by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB).  LIMNOLOGICA vol. 25, no. 3-4, pp. 321-331, 1995.  The waters in the urban areas of Berlin contain increased PCB residue in fish and sediment. The distribution of residue is shown based on an example of a body of water with no inflow or outflow (Lake Ploetze in Berlin). There is very strong bioaccumulation (the accumulation factor in organisms is approx. 40,000) and geo-accumulation in the sediment with a factor 10,000. The residue in the sediment of the lake, which is only about 7.7 ha in size, varies greatly although the sediments of the eutrophic lake (sapropel) must be regarded as homogeneous. Low chlorinated PCB migrates in the sediment, with di- and trichlorobiphenyls in particular moving into deeper layers of sediment. This is caused by the increase in water solubility caused by the high DOC content of the interstitial water and the effluent conditions in the lake. The PCB residue in the water can be very effectively monitored and assessed. A biological monitoring method with fish (bream, Abramis brama and roach, Rutilus rutilus) was developed and its results compared with those obtained by assessing the sediment residue. The PCB content of the larger and deeper lakes in Berlin and its environs is shown, using Lake Stechlin as a background water. An assessment method is introduced which uses evaluation categories to quantify the residue in the fish and sediment. The fish have 8 pollution categories the fish in the Berlin area are up to 60 times more heavily polluted than those in the background water. Twelve pollution categories must be defined for assessing the sediment, and the sediments in the waters of the Berlin area revealed increases in concentration of more than 1,000 compared with the background water.
#|Guven K. Duce J A. De Pomeraie D I .  Aquatic Toxicology (Amsterdam) 29 (1-2). 1994. 119-137. A transgenic strain of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans which carries a stress-inducible lacZ reporter gene has been evaluated in terms of its response to several environmental toxicants. Optimal sensitivity is obtained by exposing these worms to toxicants at a temperature just below that required for heat induction of the transgene. Under these circumstances, several heavy metals (Cd-2+, Zn-2+, Hg-2+, Mn-2+, Sn-2+, Ag+) cause dose-dependent transgene expression, which can be monitored as beta-galactosidase enzyme activity or by in situ histochemical staining. A simple assessment procedure has been developed so that staining patterns can be compared between runs. The induced enzyme activity is localised in a single band (of apparent size 170 kD) on Western blots, as shown both by histochemical staining and immunoprobing. Endogenous heat-shock proteins (hsp70) are optimally induced under the same assay conditions, but modest induction is also apparent under control conditions (sub-heat-shock temperatures alone). Our system requires relatively high concentrations (ppm) of metallic ions for clear-cut induction, but is apparently more sensitive to certain organic and organo-metallic compounds (lindane and tributyltin are effective at ppb levels). This system works well within strictly defined assay conditions, but some toxicants are more effective inducers than others (e.g. Cd-2+ versus Mn-2+), while some give paradoxical dose-response curves possibly due to enzyme poisoning at high toxicant concentrations (e.g. Ag+). However, similar problems are likely to be encountered with any transgenic assay system based on the heat-shock response when used to monitor environmental pollution.
#|Haag, K H ; Garcia, R ; Jarrett, G L ; Porter, S D.  Water-quality assessment of the Kentucky River basin, Kentucky: Results of investigations of surface-water quality, 1987-90.  70 pp.  1995. Water Resources Investigations Report: 95-4163.  The U.S. Geological Survey investigated the water quality of the Kentucky River Basin in Kentucky as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment program. Data collected during 1987-90 were used to describe the spatial and temporal variability of water-quality constituents including metals and trace elements, nutrients, sediments, pesticides, dissolved oxygen, and fecal-coliform bacteria. Oil-production activities were the source of barium, bromide, chloride, magnesium, and sodium in several watersheds. High concentrations of aluminum, iron, and zinc were related to surface mining in the Eastern Coal Field Region. High concentrations of lead and zinc occurred in streambed sediments in urban areas, whereas concentrations of arsenic, strontium, and uranium were associated with natural geologic sources.  Concentrations of phosphorus were significantly correlated with urban and agricultural land use. The high phosphorus content of Bluegrass Region soils was an important source of phosphorus in streams. At many sites in urban areas, most of the stream nitrogen load was attributable to wastewater-treatment-plant effluent. Average suspended-sediment concentrations were positively correlated with discharge. There was a downward trend in suspended-sediment concentrations downstream in the Kentucky River main stem during the study. The most frequently detected herbicides in water samples were atrazine, 2,4-D, alachlor, metolachlor, and dicamba. Diazinon, malathion, and parathion were the most frequently detected organophosphate insecticides in water samples.  Detectable concentrations of aldrin, chlordane, DDT, DDE, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfan, heptachlor, and lindane were found in streambed-sediment samples. Dissolved-oxygen concentrations were sometimes below the minimum concentration needed to sustain aquatic life. At some sites, high concentrations of fecal-indicator bacteria were found and water samples did not meet sanitary water-quality criteria.
#|Haaparanta A; Valtonen ET; Hoffmann RW.  Gill anomalies of perch and roach from four lakes differing in water quality.  JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY, 1997, V50, N3 (MAR), P575-591.  This study examined gill anomalies of two common freshwater fish species, roach Rutilus rutilus and perch Perca fluviatilis, collected over five seasons in 1989-1990 from four lakes in central Finland. The lakes differed both in water quality and in fish parasite species composition. Particular attention was paid to the differences in chloride cell proliferation. Gill anomalies were generally more common and abundant in roach than in perch. Chloride cell proliferation was the most frequent histological change in roach but was that least often found in perch. Most of the changes were systemic and light in severity. In perch an unidentified lesion of noncellular eosinophilic inclusions in an enlarged epithelium was also recorded. There was a marked pattern in the severity of histological changes in perch when comparing those from the natural Lake Peurunka to those from three 'altered' lakes. Gills of perch from Lake Peurunka possessed more alterations in all the recorded parameters. In roach, a significant differences were detected in chloride cell and epithelial proliferation: these were greater in Lake Peurunka and 'polluted' Lake Vatia. In perch, all histological changes were significantly more frequent at the end of autumn 1989 when compared to other seasons. In roach, increased frequencies of all gill changes were noted in winter and spring samples. Tissue reactions to parasites were either only localized or absent. The systemic gill alterations in freshwater fish may reflect the soft nature and low winter temperature of Finnish fresh waters, in which chemical imbalances, such as acid peaks, may induce more dramatic changes in fish tissues than in harder waters.
#|Hall, J. C. ; Hall, W.T. ; Simmons, C. T.  Water quality criteria for copper.  WATER ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 45-49.  1997.  Dissolved and particulate forms of copper are common trace contaminants in storm runoff and wastewater. In the dissolved state, copper appears in various forms, ranging from the cupric ion to numerous organic-inorganic complexes. The ionic form of copper is toxic at very low concentrations, while complexed copper is basically nontoxic. Regulatory agencies have long known about this "Jekyll and Hyde" behavior, but the standard permitting approach has been to assume that all dissolved copper is present in the most toxic form, which is rarely accurate because the ionic form is highly reactive, readily forming nontoxic complexes. Laboratory-derived numerical water quality criteria for copper, developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1984 and updated in 1993, assume that the toxic form of dissolved copper exists in biologically treated effluents when, in fact, it does not. This causes erroneous permits to be issued, municipal resources to be misdirected, and industrial facilities to be adversely affected.
#|Hall, L. W. Jr., & Alden, R. W. I.  A review of concurrent ambient water column and sediment toxicity testing in the Chesapeake Bay watershed: 1990-1994.  Environmental toxicology and chemistry  Aug 1997. v. 16 (8) p. 1606-1617.  The objectives of this study were to identify toxic ambient areas in the Chesapeake Bay watershed by using a battery of water column and sediment toxicity tests.  Twenty-five ambient stations in nine river/harbors were tested during 1990 through 1994. Seasonal and annual comparisons were conducted at selected stations. Inorganic and organic contaminants were evaluated in ambient water and sediment concurrently with water column and sediment tests to assess possible causes of toxicity, although absolute causality cannot be established. Multivariate statistical analysis was used to develop a TOX-INDEX at each station for both water column and sediment toxicity data. Water column tests from the 5-year testing period showed that 43% of the time, some degree of toxicity was reported. The most toxic sites based on water column results were located in urbanized areas such as the Elizabeth River, Baltimore Harbor, and the Middle River. Water quality criteria for copper lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc were exceeded at one or more of these sites.  Some degree of sediment toxicity was reported from 70% of the tests conducted during the 5-year period. The Elizabeth River and Baltimore Harbor stations were reported as the most toxic areas based on sediment results. Sediment toxicity guidelines (Long and Morgan effects range median [ER-M] values) were exceeded for one or more of the following metals at these two locations: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc. At the Elizabeth River stations 9 of 16 semivolatile organics and 2 of 7 pesticides measured exceeded the ER-M values.  Various semivolatile organics exceeded the ER-M values at a number of Baltimore Harbor sites; pyrene and dibenzo (a.h) anthracene were particularly high at one of the stations (Northwest Harbor).
#|Hall, T J. A review of recent studies in North America using integrated monitoring approaches to assessing bleached kraft mill effluent effects on receiving waters.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos, M R ; Munkittrick, K R ; Carey, J H ; van der Kraak, G J  (eds ). pp. 599-612, 1996.  International Conference on Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents.  Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada), 1994 Nov 6-10.  ST. LUCIE PRESS: DELRAY BEACH, FL. A review is provided of recent studies carried out in North America, where an integrated monitoring approach has been used in assessing possible bleached pulp mill effluent effects. Integrated monitoring has been here defined as an approach in which environmental impact assessment is based on multiple ecosystem measurements including population structure, standing crop, or production at several trophic levels. Examples of these types of studies include those carried out in mill receiving waters or experimental streams in which fish population, macroinvertebrate, and/or periphyton community characteristics have been described. In some cases it has been possible to compare and contrast the findings from these studies with the results from laboratory bioassay, biomarker, or biochemical measurements carried out at organism or suborganism levels with the same effluent. Although integrated monitoring studies can be expensive to conduct, they are considered of important value in addressing questions of ecological relevance with respect to assessing the environmental significance of mill effluents. This review summarizes the types of studies that were not previously reported, have been completed, or that are in progress in North America since the 1991 review by Owens and the SEPA "Environmental Fate and Effects of Bleached Pulp Mill Effluents" symposium (Soedergren 1991).
#|Hall,-J.-C.; Raider,-R.-L.  A Reflection on Metals Criteria. Water Environment & Technology WAETEJ, Vol. 5, No. 6, p 63-66, June 1993. The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA'S) recent publication of the Interim Guidance on Interpretation and Implementation of Aquatic Life Criteria for Metals represents a significant advancement in the regulation of metals. The criteria are not enforceable, but are available to states to assist in the development of water quality standards. Once adopted by a state, the water quality standard becomes an enforceable requirement of the Clean Water Act. From the water quality standard, EPA (or the state) calculates the total maximum daily loads for receiving waters as well as the waste-load allocations for each discharge into the receiving water and then establishes the permit effluent limitations. A key recommendation is that of the water effect ratio (WER) method, a biological method comparing the bioavailability and toxicity in receiving waters downstream of the discharge with the bioavailability and toxicity in laboratory test water. The WER is a much more comprehensive measure than a ratio of total recoverable metal to dissolved metal. In recognition of toxicological variability, the guidance provides a framework for both statewide and site-specific adjustments to water quality standards that reflect the toxicity of various metal species in ambient waters. Critics argue that the interim guidance does not reflect the latest scientific knowledge, and that the regulatory alternatives are overprotective and discourage the use of the dissolved metals approach.
#|Hall,-W.-S.; Mirenda,-R.-J. Assessing Aquatic, Terrestrial Toxicity. Environmental Protection ENPRET, Vol. 4, No. 6, p 14-18, June 1993. It has long been recognized that the toxic effects of environmental samples cannot be predicted based on chemical concentration data alone. The use of toxicity tests allows for the consideration of site-specific physical and chemical factors that may increase or decrease the toxicity of a chemical in a given medium. Ecological concerns must also be considered when evaluating effluent discharges, contaminated sediments and hazardous waste site soils. In this respect, the use of in-stream bioassessments or ecological surveys of aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems can provide valuable in-situ data on long-term toxic effects. The toxicity test methods for soils include whole soil and soil elutriate procedures, while sediment toxicity tests may involve whole sediment, sediment elutriate or sediment interstitial water. Sediment toxicity testing is also useful in determining the temporal and spatial distribution of contaminants for site characterization, in prioritizing clean-up efforts, in assigning clean-up liability, or in determining if remedial actions are warranted. In conclusion, the protocols for aquatic toxicity testing are well established, can produce environmentally realistic data and can be used to identify specific chemical toxicants. The protocols for sediment and soil testing are not as well established, and standardized chronic protocols are not yet finalized.
#|Hallock, R. J., & Hallock, L. L. F.  1993.  Detailed Study of Irrigation Drainage in and near Wildlife Management.  USGS Water-Resour Investig Report 92-4024B.  91p. Water and wildlife samples were collected at Carson Lake and Stillwater Marsh, NV, and analyzed for normal water-quality criteria, as well as for concentrations of inorganic constituents. On-site toxicity tests were made with portions of the water samples collected daily from each location. The toxicity tests involved bluegills, fathead minnow larvae, and daphnids. Water samples from irrigation drains and reservoirs were analyzed. Results indicated that the surface water near the irrigation drains and drainage water were acutely toxic to all test organisms. Strong positive correlations were found between the aggregate of arsenic, boron, lithium, and molybdenum, and overall levels of toxicity. Concentrations of B, mercury, and selenium at adverse effect levels were found in juvenile migratory birds from several study sites. Especially high concentrations of Hg and Se were found in muscles and livers of waterfowl collected from Carson Lake and from the Fernley Wildlife Management Area.
#|Hamblin-Katnik, C. (1993). USEPA water quality criteria for copper; I, Exceedence of criteria in freshwater streams; II, Influence of dissolved organic matter on toxicity.  1993.  Thesis, Ph.D.  George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States.
#|Hansen, L. D.; Maier, K. J.; Knight, A. W. The effect of sulfate on the bioconcentration of selenate by Chironomus decorus and Daphnia magna. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  vol. 25 (1): p.72-78, 1993.  Agricultural drainage containing high concentrations of selenium (Se) poses a continuing threat to wildlife in California's San Joaquin Valley. Drainage water from this area frequently contains high concentrations of sulfate, which are known to have mediating effects on the bioaccumulation and toxicity of Se in some organisms. It has been proposed that sulfate concentration should be a consideration in determining water quality criteria for Se. As a step toward analysing the viability of such a plan, this study evaluated the effect of varying sulfate concentration on Se bioconcentration by 2 aquatic invertebrates. 4th-instar larvae of C. ecorus and neonate D. magna were exposed for 48 h to 5.92 and 0.71 mg Se/litre, as selenate, respectively. The selenium:sulfur (Se:S) ratio in the dilution waters ranged from 1:0 to 1:480 for C. decorus and 1:3 to 1:240 for D. magna.  Increasing sulfate concentrations significantly reduced the accumulation of Se by both organisms.  However, these 2 organisms bioconcentrate Se differently at low sulfate concentrations. This difference can be explained by a 2 permease model for selenate/sulfate absorption. Although this experiment showed that sulfate may reduce selenate bioavailability to aquatic invertebrates, there is no indication that sulfate may completely eliminate selenate absorption. Thus further research should be performed before sulfate concentration becomes a factor in the determination of water quality standards for selenium.
#|Hanson, David A. Great Lakes Initiative More Than a Local Water Reg.  Pollut Eng  v27, n1, p52(2), Jan 95.  The Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative (GLI), based on the amendments in the 1990 Clean Water Act and the 1987 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the US and Canada, provides a comprehensive regulatory foundation for water pollution control. Proposed changes to the GLI include new regulations for bioaccumulative chemicals, water quality criteria for wildlife, human health and aquatic criteria for new chemicals, improvements of antidegradation regulations, and consistent methods for developing permit limits. The widespread impacts of the GLI make it a model for national water pollution efforts.
#|Happel-A.M. Evaluation of actinide biosorption by microorganisms. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  Jun 96. 20p. Conventional methods for removing metals from aqueous solutions include chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, electrochemical treatment and evaporation. The removal of radionuclides from aqueous waste streams has largely relied on ion exchange methods which can be prohibitively costly given increasingly stringent regulatory effluent limits. The use of microbial cells as biosorbants for heavy metals offers a potential alternative to existing methods for decontamination or recovery of heavy metals from a variety of industrial waste streams and contaminated ground waters. The toxicity and the extreme and variable conditions present in many radionuclide containing waste streams may preclude the use of living microorganisms and favor the use of non-living biomass for the removal of actinides from these waste streams. In the work presented here, we have examined the biosorption of uranium by non-living, non-metabolizing microbial biomass thus avoiding the problems associated with living systems. We are investigating biosorption with the long term goal of developing microbial technologies for the remediation of actinides.
#|Harding JS. Winterbourn MJ. Mcdiffett WF. STREAM FAUNAS AND ECOREGIONS IN SOUTH ISLAND, NEW ZEALAND -DO THEY CORRESPOND.  Archiv fur Hydrobiologie. 140(3):289-307, 1997 Sep. Water chemistry and benthic invertebrate communities of 100 headwater streams within 10 South Island, New Zealand, ecoregions were examined to assess the usefulness of ecoregions as a basis for stream classification. Water chemistry did not vary in a systematic manner among ecoregions and sheared considerable variation within some of them. In contrast, invertebrate communities differed among ecoregions in a much more consistent way. Taxonomic richness, numbers of endemic species, species dominance and summer faunal densities all differed among ecoregions, but little discrimination was possible using functional feeding groups. Stream faunas were generally similar between forested ecoregions, whereas the alpine (Southern Alps) ecoregion had the most distinct fauna. Geographically distinct areas that have been deforested and are dominated by tussock grassland and improved pasture now have very similar stream faunas with few regionally distinct elements present. Our results provide qualified support for the use of ecoregions as a basis for stream classification in New Zealand.
#|Harrass, M.C.; Crane, M.; Cahpman, P.F. Regulatory use of ecotoxicity statistics: A US perspective.  Conference on Ecotoxicology and Statistics, 1995.  ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS: ECOTOXICOLOGY AND STATISTICS  VOL. 5, NO. 3, pp. 145-154, 1996.  A variety of regulatory requirements for ecotoxicity test data exist in the US and each of these is able to specify what test protocols and endpoints are used.  General practice is tocalculate regression curve endpoints, usually EC sub(50) values, for acute tests, and hypothesis test endpoints (e.g. NOEC, LOEC) for chronic studies.  However, tests of wastewater effluents often use a hypothesis test endpoint which has been derived using site-specific information to represent a pass-fail standard for compliance. Field work, such as site assessments, tends touse hypothesis tests, but such work does not eek the dose-responsecurve sought in standard laboratory tests. The risk-based approaches being developed use either type of endpoint, but this seems to be an accommodation to existing data; preference is fordose-response curves, not just a single ECx value.  Endpoints are only one component of the conventional paradigm of environmental protection. Experience with various tests and endpoints suggest several perspectives: quality is critical, test species must be reliableand relevant, extrapolations will dominate decisions, and basing environmental decisions on the most sensitive endpoint of the most sensitive species may not remain a feasible paradigm for protecting ecological systems.
#|Harrel, R C ; McConnell, M A. The estuarine clam Rangia cuneata as a biomonitor of dioxins and furans in the Neches River, Taylor Bayou, and Fence Lake, Texas.  ESTUARIES vol. 18, no. 1B, pp. 264-270, 1995.  Polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) were measured in the tissues of the estuarine clam Rangia cuneata at four sites in the Neches River that had been subjected to paper mill effluent and at two remote sites. One of the river samplings was taken before dioxin control measures and another 2 yr after the control measures began. Measurable concentrations of PCDD/Fs were present at all sites, but higher concentrations were present at the Neches River sites. Whole tissue concentrations of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin (TCDD) and all PCDD congeners for the two collections were not significantly different (p > 0.05), but lipid-normalized concentrations for the two collections were significantly different (p < 0.05). Highest concentrations of PCDDs at sites located 8 km and 16 km upriver from the paper mill effluent outfall indicated that the materials were transported upriver by saltwater intrusion and/or that nonpoint sources existed upriver. The presences of PCDD/Fs in clam tissues from the remote sites also indicated that other sources of these materials existed. Even under extreme physiological conditions (spent reproductive phase, low lipid contents, water temperature 10 degree C ripe reproductive phase, high lipids, water temperature 32 degree C) Rangia cuneata was an effective biomonitor to determine the distribution of PCDD/Fs at specific sites.
#|Havens, Patrick L.; Cryer, Steven A.; Rolston, Laurie J. Tiered Aquatic Risk Refinement:  Case Study-At-Plant Applications of Granular Chlorpyrifos to Corn.  Environ Toxicol Chem  v17, n7, p1313(10) Jul 98.  A tiered analysis is outlined, which emphasizes the EPA approach to the characterization of risk to nontarget aquatic ecosystems. The first tier estimates the runoff potential and near-field aquatic concentrations using a simple algebraic calculation, while Tier II involves a more detailed modeling approach based on standard scenarios. Tier III estimates the potential exposure in a geographically linked form. The methodology is illustrated for at-plant applications of granular chlorpyrifos to corn. The illustration shows that reduced tillage and vegetative filter strips can reduce chlorpyrifos runoff.
#|Hayes,-K.R.; Douglas,-W.S.; Fischer,-J. Inter- and intra-laboratory testing of the Daphnia magna IQ Toxicity Test. ENVIRON.-CONTAM.-TOXICOL. 1996  vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 660-666.  The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), through the Clean Water Act has mandated toxicity testing as part of routine monitoring of effluent discharges. Many state agencies have implemented these regulations and included toxicity limits in discharge permits and penalties for non-compliance. Although standardized bioassay protocols have been utilized to assess compliance (USEPA guidance), results of toxicity tests are usually not available for between 48 and 96 hours following sample collection. Recently, the Daphnia magna IQ Toxicity Test super(TM) has been proposed as a technique for obtaining toxicity information in as little as 75 minutes following sample collection (ASTM, 1993). The IQ Toxicity Test super(TM) assesses toxicity by observing, in vivo, the cleavage of the fluorometric biomarker methylumbelliferyl galactoside (MUF). Animals are exposed to a toxicant for one hour and then a solution of biomarker substrate is added directly to the exposure chamber. Those organisms that feed normally and with functional galactosidase enzyme systems are able to cleave the marker from the substrate. The fluorescent marker is freed to the hemolymph of the organism and is readily observed visually using long wave UV light. When this biomarker test is correlated to standard 48-hour toxicity tests, agreement has been shown to be greater than 95%.
#|Healy-R.; Childs-R. Categorization Assessment Report for Pesticide Active Ingredients. Final rept. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Standards and Applied Science Div. 1 Jul 93. 243p. The report provides a qualitative categorization assessment for three sets of Pesticide Active Ingredients (PAIS): (1) The 270 PAIS initially considered for regulation; (2) A List of PAIS reported as manufactured in the 1986 Pesticide Manufacturing Census and subsequent follow-up data; and (3) A list of 120 PAIS that are being regulated under effluent guidelines. The categorization assessment uses readily-available physical-ion persistence, and aquatic toxicity of the PAIS, thus giving an indication of the potential environmental impacts due to PAIS released to the environment.
#|Healy-R.; Childs-R. Toxic Weighting Factors for Pesticide Active Ingredients and Priority Pollutants. Final rept. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Office of Water. 13 Jul 93. 64p. This report provides toxic weighting factors for 270 pesticide active ingredients and 126 priority pollutants. It is intended to be used to assist in the cost effectiveness analysis of the effluent guidelines for the pesticide chemical manufacturing category. Copper has been selected as the standard pollutant for developing weighting factors.
#|Heiny, J S ; Tate, C M.  Concentration, distribution, and comparison of selected trace elements in bed sediment and fish tissue in the South Platte River Basin, USA, 1992-1993.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 246-259, 1997.  During August-November 1992 and August 1993, bed sediment and fish liver were sampled in the South Platte River Basin and analyzed for 45 elements in bed sediment and 19 elements in fish liver. The results for aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, selenium, silver, uranium, and zinc are presented here. All 12 trace elements were detected in bed sediment, but not all were detected in fish liver or in all species of fish. A background concentration of trace elements in bed sediment was calculated using the cumulative frequency curves of trace element concentrations at all sites. Arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, manganese, silver, uranium, and zinc concentrations were greater than background concentrations at sites in mining areas or at sites that have natural sources of these elements. Trace element concentrations in fish liver generally did not follow the same patterns as concentrations in bed sediment, although concentrations of aluminum and cadmium were higher in fish liver collected at mountain sites that had been disturbed by mining.  Concentrations of aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, silver, and zinc increased in bed sediments in urban areas. Iron, silver, and zinc concentrations in fish liver also increased in urban areas. Concentrations of cadmium, copper, silver, and zinc in fish liver increased in the agricultural areas of the basin. Downstream changes in trace element concentrations may be the result of geological changes in addition to changes in land use along the river.
#|Hellawell JM; Boon PJ; Howell DL.  The contribution of biological and chemical techniques to the assessment of water quality.  FRESHWATER QUALITY: DEFINING THE INDEFINABLE?, 1997, P89-101.  Water quality can only be defined in terms of intended use; for example, potable supply, industrial cooling, effluent disposal, fisheries, recreation, wildlife and nature conservation. Generally, the aim is to set critical values for selected parameters or determinands which are considered to indicate a particular quality state. 2. Chemical and biological methods of analysis are complementary rather than competitive: each approach has strengths and weaknesses.  Chemical methods tend to be mainly 'in vitro' and enjoy advantages in terms of reliability, accuracy, precision and reproducibility. Results are obviously restricted to those determinands which are measured and their relevance depends on the extent to which their significance is understood in relation to the intended use of the water. Biological methods are largely 'in vivo' in approach. Living systems from the sub-cellular, through organisms, to whole ecosystems may be utilized. At each level of increasing complexity the results tend to be more directly relevant to wider environmental protection and regulation. However, the behaviour of higher orders of biological organization in relation to environmental changes tends to be complex and is not readily measured and analysed. 3. Temporal variations in water quality effect an integrated response from biological systems and studying these may be a more effective means of assessing such variations than continuous monitoringof a necessarily restricted range of abiotic parameters. 4. The quest for the ideal single measure of biological water quality, often in the form of an 'index', has largely been driven by comparing the behaviour of each measure in relation to other parameters, such as chemical determinands, or to subjective preconceptions of the 'true' water quality based on detailed knowledge of a particular site. By iterative modification of indices, a solution which provides a good match with the perceived quality is obtained. The index can then be utilized elsewhere to assess the status of less well-known waters.
#|Hennessy, M.M.; Wilson, L.; Struthers, W.; Kelly, L.A.  Waste loadings from two freshwater Atlantic salmon juvenile farms in Scotland.  WATER, AIR, SOIL POLLUT  VOL.  86, NO. 1-4, pp. 235-249, 1996.  Studies of waste generation from the freshwater phase of atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) production have not been substantially updated since the mid 1980's, and advances in husbandry practices designed to reduce wastage which have taken place in that period therefore remain unconsidered. In order to determine if reductions have been achieved, two Scottish fish farms were visited on a number of occasions during one year, and outputs of suspended solids (SS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) (NH sub(3)+NH sub(4) super(+)), dissolved reactive and total phosphorus (DRP, TP) were monitored. The range of waste loadings obtained were 9.1-10.0 kg TP t/fish/yr, 410 kg BOD sub(5) t/fish/yr, 191-606 kg SS t/fish/y, and 20.3-39.3 kg TAN-N t/fish/yr. Compared to existing data, a greater range of daily waste loadings were observed, suggesting that morefrequent monitoring is required to reduce variations observed in the data set, and to obtain accurate information on waste outputs from such operations.  Modifications of feeding methods remains a route through which further reductions in waste outputs may be made.
#|Herkimer, Michael; Kinnear, David; Krauth, Paul; Loader, Kent; Okey, Robert; Rawlings, Lee; Reynolds, Florence.  Biomonitoring. Water Environment Research  70 (4):p954-962 June, 1998.
#|Herkovits, J ; Silvia Perez Coll, C ; Herkovits, F D.  Ecotoxicity in the Reconquista River, Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina: A preliminary study.  EHP/ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 186-189, 1996.  The Reconquista River in Argentina is considered a "supercritical" river basin due to environmental degradation. Within its valley of 1.547 km super(2), there are more than 3 million inhabitants and 12,000 industries. Using early-life-stage toxicity tests with Bufo arenarum embryos (the most sensitive of three native species), we determined the water quality at six sampling stations of the river valley and expressed the results as acute and chronic toxicity units. Along most of the river, the toxicity was higher than the allowable level of whole industrial effluent toxicity recommended by U.S. EPA. In a tributary stream, Arroyo Moron, the water was about 10 times more toxic than the criteria maximum concentration (CMC) recommended by U.S. EPA for industrial effluents. Similar degradation of the water quality was found taking as a reference value an upstream sampling station. In all places where the water quality was worse than the CMC, no macroorganisms were found, and in one of these places, a large number of dead fishes was observed. Our study points out that amphibian early-life-stage toxicity tests could be appropriate for assessing water contamination and water quality, which is essential for diagnosis, protection of environmental services, monitoring, and restoration purposes.
#|Herlihy AT, Stoddard JL, Johnson CB. The relationship between stream chemistry and watershed land cover data in the mid-Atlantic region, US.  WATER AIR AND SOIL POLLUTION : (1-2) 377-386 JUL 1998.  In order to investigate the relationship between stream chemistry and watershed land cover at the regional scale, we analyzed data from 368 wadeable streams sampled in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. during spring 1993-1994. Study sites were selected using a probability sample and the digitized version of the 1:100,000 scale USGS map stream network as the sample population. Both classified Thematic Mapper (TM) and USGS Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) data were used to quantify land cover in the study watersheds. On average, the most common land cover was forest (77%) followed by agriculture (20%), and urban (1%). Multiple regression analysis showed that concentrations of Cl-, nutrients, acid neutralization capacity, and base cations were the analytes most strongly related to watershed land cover. Despite large differences in resolution and age of the TM and LULC data sources, similar results were obtained with the two sources. Using a greater number of land cover subclasses did not greatly improve the land cover-chemistry relationships. Ecoregions with predominantly forested land cover had weaker relationships than ecoregions with more agricultural and/or urban land cover. In studies or databases without land cover information, Cl- concentration is a good surrogate indicator for general human disturbance in the watershed.
#|Herricks, Edwin.  Watershed/Ecosystem Issues in Urban Runoff Monitoring and Management.  Am Soc Civ Eng/et al Integrated Water Resour Plan for the 21st Century 22nd Annu Conf Proc, Cambridge, MA  p45(3) May 7-11, 95.  (Full text available from Congressional Information Service at 1-800-227-2477).  Formal and informal discussions held at the Engineering Foundation Conference, sponsored by ASCE's Urban Water Resources Council, brought out critical issues relating to National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) watershed management and monitoring. From an ecological perspective, studies suggest that stormwater and urban runoff cause short- and long-term changes in habitat physical stability and chemical toxicity in receiving waters. Among the specific topics of discussion were: thresholds of ecological degradation, ecoregion approaches to ecosystem assessment, standardized metrics as biological measures, and time-scale toxicity.
#|HESPANHOL I; PROST A ME.  WHO guidelines and national standards for reuse and water quality. WATER RESEARCH; 28 (1). 1994. 119-124.  Guidelines for reuse and drinking water quality are based on scientific research and epidemiological findings, and as such provide guidance for making risk management decisions related to the protection of public health and the preservation of the environment.  Water quality standards are legal impositions enacted by means of laws, regulations or technical procedures, which are established by countries by adapting guidelines to their national priorities and taking in account their technical, economical, social, cultural and political characteristics and constraints.  Several examples are presented with the objective ofdifferentiating standards from guidelines, and to show how countries have been adapting WHO guidelines to their situations inorder to produce national standards on drinking water quality, and for the use of treatedwastewater for crop irrigation.
#|Hewitt,-L.M.; Carey,-J.H.; Dixon,-D.G.; Munkittrick,-K.R.  Examination of bleached kraft mill effluent fractions for potential inducers of mixed function oxygenase activity in rainbow trout.  ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF PULP AND PAPER MILL EFFLUENTS. Servos,-M.R.; Munkittrick,-K.R.; Carey,-J.H.; van-der-Kraak,-G.J. (eds.)  DELRAY BEACH, FL 33483 (USA)  ST. LUCIE PRESS.1996 pp. 79-94. The induction of mixed function oxygenase (MFO) enzymes in fish exposed to pulping effluents is well documented but the responsible compounds are unidentified. Liver ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was determined in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after exposures to fractions generated from the effluent of a modernized bleached kraft pulp and paper mill. Exposures to whole and filtered (<1 mu m) effluent, resuspended solids, and two fractions generated from nanofiltration were conducted for primary effluent, effluent after secondary treatment (aerated lagoon), and effluent collected during a scheduled pulping shutdown. For each fraction exposed, effluent constituents were detected using GC with ECD, and FID as well as GC-MS. Exposure concentrations were compared with EROD activities to evaluate their potential to cause induction. Resin acids, fatty acids, bacterial fatty acids, terpenes, chlorophenolics, aliphatic alkanes, plant sterols, and chlorinated dimethylsulfones for which authentic standards were available were eliminated as potential EROD inducers. Several chlorophenolics, including tetrachloroguaiacol, exhibited a correlation with observed induction patterns but subsequent exposures to pure tetrachloroguaiacol failed to cause MFO induction. The correlations exhibited by these compounds may indicate the potential source of the chemicals responsible for MFO induction.
#|Hickey C W, & Vickers M L.  Toxicity of ammonia to nine native New Zealand freshwater invertebrate species.  Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 26 (3), 1994.  292-298. The toxic concentration for un-ionized ammonia (NH-3) was assessed for nine native New Zealand invertebrate species. The 96-h EC-50 values at 15 degree C and pH 7.6 and pH 8.2 ranged from 0.18 to gt 0.8 g/m-3 NH-3. The rank of species sensitivity was: shrimp (Paratya curvirostris) (least) apprxeq mayfly (Zephlebia dentata) apprxeq stonefly (Zealandobius furcillatus) lt Oligochaeta (Lumbriculus variegatus) lt fingernail clam (Sphaerium novaezelandiae) lt mayfly (Deleatidium spp.) lt a snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) lt caddis (Pycnocentria evecta) lt crustacean (Paracalliope fluviatilis) (most). Surprisingly, the more sensitive species were those which would normally be associated with lowland streams (the snail and crustacean) rather than the normally accepted "sensitive" species (mayflies and stoneflies). Temperature had no significant effect on the acute toxicity of un-ionized ammonia with snails tested at 15, 20, and 25 degree C. The invertebrates were more sensitive than the native fish species tested (inanga, EC-50 1.60 g/m-3 NH-3; Richardson 1991). A final acute value (FAV) calculated for these species was 0.15 g/m-3 NH-3. This compares with the FAV value of 0.52 g/m-3 NH, derived by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as the basis for the ammonia criterion for salmonid containing waters. Thus EPA criteria may not provide adequate protection for New Zealand species. These data suggest that chronic studies would be particularly desirable on native New Zealand species to better determine their sensitivity to long term ammonia exposure.
#|Hinzman, R. L. ; Adams, S. M. ; Ashwood, T. L.  Third report on the Oak Ridge K-25 Site Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program for Mitchell Branch.  Report No.: ORNL/TM-12790.  Aug 95, 250p.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication No. 4305.  y Department of Energy, Washington, DC.  As a condition of the modified National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit issued to the Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant (ORGDP; now referred to as the Oak Ridge K-25 Site) on September 11, 1986, a Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program (BMAP) was developed for the receiving stream (Mitchell Branch or K-1700 stream).  A biological monitoring plan was submitted for Mitchell Branch, Poplar Creek, Poplar Creek Embayment of the Clinch River and any unnamed tributaries of these streams.  The objectives of BMAP are to (1) demonstrate that the effluent limitations established for the Oak Ridge K-25 Site protect and maintain the use of Mitchell Branch for growth and propagation of fish and other aquatic life and (2) document the effects on stream biota resulting from operation of major new pollution abatement facilities, including the Central Neutralization Facility (CNF) and the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) incinerator.  The BMAP consists of four tasks:  (1) toxicity monitoring; (2) bioaccumulation monitoring; (3) assessment of fish health; and (4) instream monitoring of biological communities, including benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. This document, the third in a series, reports on the results of the Oak Ridge K-25 Site BMAP; it describes studies that were conducted over various periods of time between June 1990 and December 1993, although monitoring conducted outside this time period is included, as appropriate.
#|Hinzman, R. L. ; Southworth, G. R. ; Stewart, A. J. ; Filson, M. J. Evaluation of the environmental effects of stormwater pollutants for Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Report No.: ORNL/TM-12888.  Jul 95, 193p.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication Number 4359. Order this product from NTIS by: phone at 1-800-553-NTIS (U.S. customers); (703)605-6000 (other countries); fax at (703)321-8547; and email at orders@ntis.fedworld.gov. Contract No.: AC05-84OR21400.  Despite Best Management Practices (BMP), total suspended solids (TSS) and oil and grease (O and G) concentrations in stormwater runoff frequently have been above the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permit effluent limits at ORNL.  Although the effects of stormwater pollutants to aquatic ecosystems are of concern regionally and nationally, NPDES permit violations at ORNL are best addressed on a site-specificbasis. This document explores several key questions to determine whether the TSS and O and G noncompliances at ORNL are primarily a regulatory problem (i.e., Category 1 and 2 effluent limits are neither reasonably achievable nor effective in achieving environmental protection), or a legitimate ecological concern that will require effective remediation. The three tasks outlined in the study plan were to (1) clarify the degree of TSS and O and G noncompliances at ORNL, (2) provide guidance as to appropriate limits for TSS and O and G in Category 1 and 2 discharges, and (3) provide information about the effectiveness of possible mitigation or remediation measures for SS and O and G in stormwater releases, assuming that such measures are needed for one or more ORNL Category 1 or 2 outfalls.
#|Hinzman, R.L.; Adams, S.M.; Black, M.C.  Second report on the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program for East Fork Poplar Creek.  Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant, TN.; Oak Ridge National Lab., TN.  Environmental Sciences Division Publication No. 3859.  Department of Energy, Washington, DC. 427p.  As stipulated in the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NDPES) permit issued to the Oak RidgeY-12 Plant on May 24, 1986, a Biological Monitoring and Abatement Program (BMAP) was developed for the receiving stream, East Fork Poplar Creek (EFPC). The objectives of BMAP are (1) to demonstrate that the current effluent limitations established for the Y-12 Plant protect the classified uses of EFPC (e.g., the growth and propagation of fish and aquatic life), as designated by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC) and (2) to document the ecological effects resulting from implementation of a Water Pollution Control Program that includes construction of several large wastewater treatment facilities.  BMAP consists of four major tasks: (1) ambient toxicity testing; (2) bioaccumulation studies; (3) biological indicator studies; and (4) ecological surveys of stream communities, including periphyton (attached algae), benthic (bottom-dwelling) macroinvertebrates, and fish. This document, the second in a series of reports on the results of the Y-12 Plant BMAP, describes studies that were conducted between July 1986 and July 1988, although additional data collected outside this time period are included, as appropriate.
#|Hitchcock, D. R.; Black, M. C.; Williams, P. L. Investigations into using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans for municipal and industrial wastewater toxicity testing. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology vol. 33 (3): p.252-260, 1997. This investigative study assessed the ease and usefulness of C. elegans for identifying contributors to effluent toxicity within an industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) system. A major objective of this study was to identify primary sources of toxicity throughout the system with a nematode toxicity test. 24h composite water samples were taken periodically over a 10-month period at 5 strategic points within the system:  (1) at the point of discharge at each of the 3 industries, (2)at the combined industrial influent of the wastewater treatment plant, (3) at the effluent of the WWTP, (4) upstream of the WWTP discharge and (5) downstream of the WWTP discharge. Samples were analysed for basic water chemistry, and each sample was tested for whole effluent toxicity using a 72h nematode test with mortality as the end point. Results suggested that interactions between the wastewaters of certain industries may increase the overall nematode toxicity in the wastewater treatment facility's composite influent and effluent.  Nematode mortality trends indicated relatively high toxicity levels in wastewater entering the WWTP from contributing industries. High WWTP influent toxicity may potentially be due to varying flow rate ratios f industrial discharges, release of varying toxic constituents in wastewaters, and toxic interactions between chemical constituents of industrial wastewaters.  The evaluation of toxicity within the treatment system may pinpoint locations where pollution prevention strategies may be implemented to reduce overall toxicity at the point of discharge.
#|Hockett J Russell; Mount David R.  Use of metal chelating agents to differentiate among sources of acute aquatic toxicity.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 15 (10):p1687-1693 1996.  Metals are common toxicants found in effluents and other environmental samples. Within Toxicity Identification Evaluation methods proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and others, addition of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is used as an indicator of metal toxicity. Previous experiments showed that addition of sodium thiosulfate, originally included to detect toxicity due to oxidants, was also effective at reducing toxicity from some common metals. In the present study, we characterized the effectiveness of both EDTA and thiosulfate in removing the toxicity of 16 different metal ions to Ceriodaphnia dubia.  Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid addition removed toxicity associated with all cationic metals tested except for Cr-3+, Fe-2+, Al-3+, and Ag+. Thiosulfate addition was less effective than EDTA for Zn-2+, Mn-2+, Pb-2+, and Ni-2+, but reduced toxicity of both Ag+ and selenite (Se(VI)), which EDTA did not. Results of this research can be used to categorize metal toxicity in unknown samples based on the response to additions of EDTA and thiosulfate.
#|Hofer R; Jeney Z; Bucher F.  Chronic effects of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) and ammonia on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fry at water criteria limits.  Water Research, 29 (12). 1995.  2725-2729.  Rainbow trout fry was chronically exposed (54 days) to 0.2 mg l-1 LAS(C-11-12). Although this concentration is considered to be the NOEC (no observed effect concentration), lamellar gill epithelia hypertrophied and swimming capacity was reduced. Furthermore, the exposure of the fish to a secondary stressor (low salinity challenge test) caused increased mortality. Un-ionized ammonia did not affect the above-mentioned parameters when fish were treated with a NOEC of 24 mu-g l-1. At 72 mu-g l-1, however, unionized ammonia caused distinct hypertrophy of gill epithelia. This effect was significantly enhanced when combined with LAS (additive effect). Only in this group, growth was reduced.
#|Hogrefe, R.  Albuquerque's NPDES wastewater discharge permit 1994. (1995).  In: THE FUTURE OF ALBUQUERQUE AND MIDDLE RIO GRANDE BASIN. PROCEEDINGS OF THE 39TH ANNUAL NEW MEXICO WATER CONFERENCE, Albuquerque, NM., 1994 Nov 3-4, pp. 317-320.  The 1994 Albuquerque discharge permit was issued three years after the City's previous permit expired in 1991. Significant changes were made in the 1987 Federal Clean Water Act Amendments. The changes added new toxicity criteria to be adopted under state stream standards that translate to new NPDES permit limits. New Mexico followed suit and in1991 adopted new criteria that materially impacted discharges to surface waters. In addition, the 1987 Amendments authorized Indian Pueblos to adopt protective stream standards under the same authority as states. The Pueblo of Isleta was the first Indian Pueblo to pursue this action and the City of Albuquerque was the first NPDES permit holder to be impacted directly by this action. Deliberations occurred between the EPA, State of New Mexico, Pueblo of Isleta, and the City during 1993 and early 1994. A Settlement Agreement was reached in April 1994, which stipulated a new permit with new limits. The Agreement also stipulated important studies to be performed by the U.S. Geological Survey, funded by the parties to the Agreement. The City of Albuquerque has committed the lion's share of funding for the Agreement, $150,000.  The City's new permit effective June 1, 1994, places limits on conventional parameters such as Biochemical Oxygen Demand, suspended solids and fecal coliform as well as limits for silver and arsenic. Monitoring must be performed for aluminum, ammonia, cyanide, nitrate, and biomonitoring. Chlorine is limited to nondetection. The City must follow a fast-track program for achieving ammonia removal through nitrification/denitrification by 1998. The estimated capital costs are $60 million. A pilot wetlands project also is in design stages.
#|Hogrefe, R.H.; Ornelas, D.O.  A gem of an idea.  WATER ENVIRON. TECHNOL  VOL. 8, NO. 12, pp. 55-60, 1996.  In New Mexico, jewelry making generates $16 million per year in wages, contributing nearly $200 million annually to the state's economy. Jewelry manufacturers in Albuquerque include one- and two-person custom jewelry and repair shops as well as larger shops with hundreds of workers who make jewelry for the mass market.  The major wastewater concerns in jewelry making are dissolved and particulate metals and acid pickling solutions. Although not as common, wastes containing cyanide, cadmium, and lead also cause concern. The New Mexico Water Quality Control Commission in 1991 adopted a chronic state wastestream standard of 0.12 parts per billion (ppb) for silver, based on EPA criteria. It was revoked in 1994 because Albuquerque officials protested that such a standard automatically put it in violation of National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) silver limits.
#|Hogstrand, C ; Galvez, F ; Wood, C M.  Toxicity, silver accumulation and metallothionein induction in freshwater rainbow trout during exposure to different silver salts.  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1102-1108, 1996.  Static-renewal 168-h toxicity tests of silver nitrate (AgNO sub(3)), silver chloride (AgCl sub(n)), and silver thiosulfate (Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n)) with juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were performed by standard methods. Because of low solubility of AgCl(s), bioassays for AgCl sub(n) were performed in two separate ways. In one test series, AgCl(s) was added to freshwater and in another, AgCl sub(n)(aq) was generated by adding AgNO sub(3) to freshwater supplemented with 50 mM NaCl. Concentrations of Ag and metallothionein (MT) were analyzed in gills and livers of fish that survived the exposures. Although Ag added as AgNO sub(3) was found to be highly toxic to rainbow trout (168-h LC50 = 9.1 mu g Ag/L), the toxicities of the other Ag salts were low. The 168-h LC50 for Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n) was 137,000 mu g Ag/L and no mortality was observed in AgCl sub(n) (100,000 mu g Ag/L). Exposure to AgNO sub(3), Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n), or AgCl sub(n) caused accumulation of Ag and induction of MT. Highest Ag levels were found in livers of trout exposed to 164,000 mu g Ag/L as Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n). In these fish, the hepatic Ag concentration was increased 335 times from the control value. The MT levels in gills and liver increased with the water Ag concentration and the highest level of MT was found in liver of fish exposed to Ag(S sub(2)O sub(3)) sub(n).
#|Hogstrand, C., & Wood, C. M.  Toward a better understanding of the bioavailability, physiology, and toxicity of silver in fish: Implications for water quality criteria.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 17 (4). 1998.  547-561. In its ionic form, silver (Ag+) is highly toxic to fish (96-h 50% lethal concentration (LC50): low mu-g/L range). However, concentrations of Ag+ in aquatic environments are extremely low and other more common forms of silver show only low to moderate toxicities (e.g., 96-h LC50: silver thiosulfate gt 100,000 mu-g Ag/L; silver chlorides gt 100 mu-g Ag/L). In bioassays with freshwater fish, acute toxicity appears to be derived exclusively from the Ag+ ion concentration of the water. Some other forms of silver are bioavailable but do not show obvious contribution to acute toxicity. Complexation of Ag+ by chloride, dissolved organic carbon, and sulfide are important in reducing silver toxicity. The protective action of hardness (i.e. calcium) is modest. When added as the readily dissociating silver nitrate salt, the toxicity of silver is considerably lower in seawater (96-h LC50 range: 330-2,700 mu-g Ag/L) than in freshwater (96-h LC50 range: 5-70 mu-g Ag/L). Acute silver toxicity to fish is caused by failure of the organism to maintain constant Na+ and Cl- concentrations in the blood plasma. In freshwater fish, Ag+ exerts its toxic effects on the Na+ and Cl- transport across the gills, whereas the intestine has been indicated as the site of toxicity in seawater fish. Although there are still many gaps in our understanding of silver effects on fish, it can be concluded that present regulatory standards for silver can be much improved by taking into, account the important geochemical modifiers of silver toxicity.
#|HOLDWAY DA; BRENNAN SE; AHOKAS JT.  SHORT REVIEW OF SELECTED FISH BIOMARKERS OF XENOBIOTIC EXPOSURE WITH AN EXAMPLE USING FISH HEPATIC MIXED-FUNCTION OXIDASE.  AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 1995, V20, N1 (MAR), P34-44.  One group of biological tools that are useful for monitoring exposure to xenobiotics (and hence water quality) have been collectively referred to as biomarkers and are defined in this paper as any biochemical, histological and/or physiological alterations or manifestations of stress. Biomarkers within an aquatic toxicological context generally represent biological responses of individual organisms to xenobiotic exposure (i.e. responses at the whole organism level of biological organization) These include among others, enzyme alterations, bile metabolites, RNA/DNA ratio, adenylate energy charge, skeletal abnormalities, immune dysfunction, behavioural changes and histopathological lesions. Biomarkers can act as effective early warning sentinels ro ensure the protection of the integrity of whole ecosystems, including freshwater.  This paper briefly reviews a selection of fish biomarkers of xenobiotic chemical exposure and marine ecosystems discusses their respective strengths and limitations for use in biomonitoring. An example of the the application oi fish mixed-function Oxidase (MFO) and cytochrome P-LSO as biomarkers of chemical exposure in Port Phillip Bay is provided it is concluded that judicious application oi biomarkers such as MFO in association with an understanding of the underlying causal mechanisms of induction and toxicity, will contribute to the successful prediction of biological effects of xenobiotic exposure on fish population health.
#|Holdway,-D.A.  Acute and sub-chronic toxicity of a pulp and paper mill effluent and a simulated deinking mill effluent (containing DTPA) to embryo and larval rainbowfish (Melanotaenia fluviatilis). AUSTRALAS.-J.-ECOTOXICOL. 1996  vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 17-26.  The acute and sub-chronic toxicity of pre-deinking treated effluent (PDE) from ANM-Albury and of simulated (pilot plant) deinking effluent (SDE) was assessed in a series of embryo-larval stage (ELS) experiments using native Murray River crimson-spotted rainbowfish (Melanotaenia fluviatilis). There was no mortality of 1-d-old larval rainbowfish after 48 h of exposure to 100% aerated PDE; mortality after 96 h (20%) was not significant relative to controls (32.5%). There was no deleterious effect on hatchability from PDE exposure (70 to 100% for controls versus 80 to 100% for 2.9%, 1:33 dilution, PDE exposed eggs). Cumulative larval mortality was not affected by PDE exposure in the embryo exposure experiments. There was no deleterious effect of PDE exposure on larval wet weight in either the embryo or larval exposure experiments. Exposure of 1-d-old larval rainbowfish to 100% un-aerated SDE for 24 h caused no mortality; subsequent 48 and 72 h mortality was confounded by low dissolved oxygen levels (< 3.0 mg/L) caused by the untreated simulated effluent BOD and thus was likely to be removed by secondary treatment. There were no deleterious mortality or wet weight effects on 1-d-old larval rainbowfish continuously exposed to up to 2.9% SDE for 14 days. There was no effect of SDE exposure up to 2.9% on hatchability of rainbowfish eggs. Cumulative larval mortality in the hatchability controls ranged from 20-25% compared with only 5% in 2.9% SDE exposed embryos. This research indicated that both PDE and SDE (which contained 113 mg/L of DTPA) effluents were non-toxic to native Murray River crimson-spotted rainbowfish at all dilutions tested and would not represent a serious toxicological risk to Murray River fish at the required minimum dilution of 80:1 or predicted future minimum dilution of 600:1 following on-site wastewater reuse.
#|Holmbom, B ; Harju, L ; Lindholm, J ; Groening, A L.  Effect of a pulp and paper mill on metal concentrations in the receiving lake system.  AQUA FENNICA vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 93-110, 1994.  So far little attention has been paid to the discharge of metals from pulp and paper mills. The discharge of metal ions with the effluent from the Kaukas pulp and paper mill into the south part of lake Saimaa was analysed. The mill effluent and waters at nine sites in the receiving lake system, one upstream and eight downstream of the mill, were sampled during two 4-5 week long periods. The concentrations of over 30 metal ions in the mill effluent and 12 metal ions in the lake water samples were analysed by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS), direct current plasma atomic emission spectrometry (DCP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The concentrations of most metal ions were relatively low in the mill effluent. However, the large effluent flow resulted in considerable discharge quantities of some metals, although not of toxic metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium. The effect of the mill on metal concentrations in the receiving lake downstream of the mill was most distinct for manganese and sodium. Elevated concentrations due to the effluent load were found also for zinc and chromium. The concentrations of these metals decreased with the distance from the mill outlet. This was mainly a result of dilution of waters in the receiving water area. More information is needed concerning metal contents in the pulp wood used by pulp and paper mills. The behaviour of metals in pulp and paper processes also needs more research.  Presently much research is conducted in the pulp and paper industry to find solutions that would enable closure of process water systems, which also include systems for recovery of metals.
#|Hontela, A ; Daniel, C ; Rasmussen, J B.  Structural and functional impairment of the hypothalamo-pituitary-interrenal axis in fish exposed to bleached kraft mill effluent in the St Maurice River, Quebec.  ECOTOXICOLOGY vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-12, 1997.  The effects of bleached kraft mill effluent (BKME) on blood cortisol levels and the morphology of the pituitary-interrenal axis were investigated in two species of teleost fish, the northern pike, Esox lucius, and the yellow perch, Perca flavescens, sampled upstream and downstream from a pulp and paper mill on the St Maurice River, Quebec. Fish were acutely stressed by a standardized capture and sampling protocol at both sites, and their ability to elevate blood cortisol levels in response to the capture stress was compared. Blood cortisol levels in fish from the upstream site (> 100 ng/ml plasma) were higher than the levels in fish from the BKME site, and the pituitary corticotropes and the interrenal steroidogenic cells of the upstream fish were larger and had larger nuclei compared with cells from the downstream fish. The low blood cortisol levels in fish exposed to BKME were correlated to cellular atrophy within the hypothalamo pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis. The reduced ability to elevate blood cortisol in response to an acute stress may be an endocrine dysfunction occurring in fish chronically exposed to chemical stressors in their environment.
#|Horwath William R; Elliott Lloyd F; Steiner Jeffrey J; Davis Jennifer H; Griffith S M.  Denitrification in cultivated and noncultivated riparian areas of grass cropping systems. Journal of Environmental Quality  27 (1):p225-231 Jan.-Feb., 1998. The factors that affect denitrification of fertilizer N were determined in cultivated riparian (CR) soils cropped to perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and noncultivated naturally vegetated riparian soils (NCR) of poorly drained grass cropping systems in western Oregon. Denitrification activity in the NCR was low compared with the CR using the Acetylene Inhibition method. The CR soil denitrification activity was consistent over the growing season, averaging between 269 and 280 g N2O-N ha-1 d-1 during the measurement period depending on soil type. Denitrification activity was positively coffelated to soil NH4-N level in the CR. The greater denitrification activity of the CR likely reflects fertilizer applications in contrast to no fertilizer addition to the NCR. Nitrate-N levels in the CR averaged 5 to 1-2 times higher than those of the NCR. Nitrate did not appear to encroach from the CR into the NCR by subsurface water movement. The microbial biomass was four times larger in the NCR soils and may have functioned as a significant sink for N reducing denitrification activity. Multivariate factor analysis using orthogonal factor rotation showed that approximately 83% of the observed variance in denitrification was explained by grouping experimental variables by microbial activity, N2O-N emission, temperature, and nitrification. The grouping of soil variables was useful in explaining the importance of different soil processes in regulating denitrification. These denitrification activity data demonstrate the possibility for significant N losses, amounting to 12.5% of the applied fertilizer N, from poorly drained cropping systems.
#|Hosseinipour, E. Zia ; Neal, Larry A.  Stream Dissolved Oxygen Modeling and Wasteload Allocation.  Water Resources Engineering: Proceedings of the 1995 First International Conference on Water Resources Engineering: Texas Water '95: Volume 1, San Antonio, TX, August 14-18, 1995, p 516-520.  American Society of Civil Engineers.  Effluent discharges to receiving waters are regulated by National and State Environmental Protection Agencies.  To discharge treated effluent, industrial facilities must obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit that specifies discharge limits for specific chemical constituents on an individual basis. These limits depend on constituents type, receiving water flow regime and assimilative capacity, tolerance of aquatic species within the water body, background water quality, etc. This paper discusses water quality modeling in support of the NPDES permit application process.  Water quality management alternatives were analyzed with the aid of a water quality modeling package to project discharge limits based on flow regimes of the receiving waters, ambient water temperature, and the 5 day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) of the discharge effluent. The goal was to determine the appropriate waste load allocations to meet the EPA guidelines for Best Practicable control Technology currently available (BPT) and protect the oxygen resources of the stream during critical conditions, while remaining cost effective.
#|Houck C P, Thornton R J, Brooks J, & Saunders J F III.  A model of alternative ways to meet dissolved oxygen standards.  Water Environment Research, 69 (5), 1997, 948-954. Existing in-stream dissolved oxygen (DO) standards in portions the South Platte River below Denver are not being met. In the summer, the river is effluent dominated and in-stream oxidation (nitrification of ammonia) is a significant cause of DO depletion. Facilities were installed to remove ammonia from a portion of treatment plant effluent; while improving water quality, these facilities did not solve the low DO problem. A sophisticated water quality model was used to investigate alternatives to traditional in-plant treatment. Extensive water quality, fisheries, and aquatic habitat data also were assembled, and a site-specific DO standard was proposed that protects aquatic life. Modeling indicated that, even if essentially complete ammonia removal were achieved, the DO problem would not be solved. Various combinations of stream reaeration, channel modifications, effluent diversion, and other techniques were examined with the model, and the six preferred alternatives were subjected to model evaluation for each of 4 summer months to meet both acute and chronic DO criteria. Capital and operation and maintenance costs were estimated, and a subjective risk and benefit evaluation was performed. Modeling and refinement of alternatives finally resulted in a recommended alternative involving installation of both passive and active in-stream reaeration structures that could potentially ave 25 to 65 million in capital costs, with substantial savings in annual operating costs as well.
#|House,-P.K.; Pearthree,-P.A.  A geomorphologic and hydrologic evaluation of an extraordinary flood discharge estimate: Bronco Creek, Arizona. WATER-RESOUR.-RES. 1995  vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 3059-3073.
#|Hughes, H E. From Superfund site to sportsmen's paradise.  LAND AND WATER vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 17-18, 1996.  First built around 1918 as a disposal containment area for copper ore mill tailings, Warm Springs Ponds consists of three separate holding facilities in the flood-plain of Silver Bow Creek in Southwestern Montana. Over a 65-year period, about 19 million cubic yards of metals-contaminated tailings, associated soils and precipitates had settled behind the site's three embankment dams, turning Warm Springs Ponds into a central part of the country's largest Superfund site. The migration of heavy metals into the surface flows of Silver Bow Creek created an environmental hazard for downstream residents and wildlife. Plus, the site's embankment dams did not meet current dam safety standards, and were in danger of breaching in the event of severe flooding or earthquakes. The property's owner, Atlantic Richfield Company, hired ESA Consultants Inc. to design a remediation plan that would bring the site into regulatory compliance. ESA's award-winning solution surpassed Superfund requirements, cost half as much as estimated in the EPA's Feasibility Study, kept all contaminants on-site, assured the safety of downstream residents, and improved the environment. The site is now open to sportsmen and area residents for year-round use.
#|Hughes, R. M.; Whittier, T. R.; Rohm, C. M.; Larsen, D. P. Regional Framework for Establishing Recovery Criteria. Environmental Management, v14 n5 p673-683 1990. Effective assessments of aquatic ecosystem recovery require ecologically sound endpoints against which progress can be measured. Site-by-site assessments of end points and potential recovery trajectories are impractical for water resource agencies. Because of the natural variation among ecosystems, applying a single set of criteria nationwide is not appropriate either. The article demonstrates the use of a regional framework for stratifying natural variation and for determining realistic biological criteria. A map of ecoregions, drawn from landscape characteristics, formed the framework for three statewide case studies and three separate studies at the river basin scale. Statewide studies of Arkansas, Ohio, and Oregon, USA, streams demonstrated patterns in fish assemblages corresponding to ecoregions. The river basin study in Oregon revealed a distinct change at the ecoregion boundary; those in Ohio and Montana demonstrated the value of regional reference sites for assessing recovery. Ecoregions can be used to facilitate the application of ecological theory and to set recovery criteria for various regions of states or of the country. Such a framework provides an important alternative between site-specific and national approaches for assessing recovery rates and conditions.
#|Hyman, T C ; Hamby, D M.  Parameter uncertainty and sensitivity in a liquid-effluent dose model.  ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 51-65, 1995.  Radioactive materials which are released into streams on the Savannah River Site (SRS) eventually flow into the Savannah River. Tritium, super(90)Sr, super(137)Cs, and super(239)Pu account for the majority of the radiation dose received by users of the Savannah River.  This paper focuses on the dose uncertainties originating from variability in parameters describing the transport and uptake of these nuclides. Parameter sensitivity has also been determined for each liquid pathway exposure model. The models used here to estimate radiation dose to an exposed individual provide a range of possible dose estimates that span approximately one order of magnitude. A pathway analysis reveals that aquatic food and water consumption account for more than 95% of the total dose to an individual.
#|Hyne RV, & Everett DA. (1998). Application of a benthic amphipod, Corophium sp., as a sediment toxicity testing organism for both freshwater and estuarine systems.  ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY, V34, N1, P26-33. The use of an as-yet-undescribed euryhaline Corophium sp. amphipod as a sediment toxicity testing organism was assessed. The species was found to be ubiquitous in many tidal areas of the Hawkesbury River catchment. The salinity of habitat sites ranged from 0.1 to 24 ppt, sediment total organic carbon (TOC) ranged from 0.4% to 3.5%, and the fines content (< 63 mu m particle size) of the sediment ranged from 4.3% to 47.6%, Monitored populations ranged from a density of 59 to 6622 individuals per m(2), with freshwater sites with a sediment fines content greater than 20% having the highest population densities. The sensitivity of the Corophium sp, was assessed by using copper chloride and ammonium chloride as reference toxicants in a 96-h static water-only test and a 10-day static sediment test. The LC50 for copper in freshwater-only exposures was 80 to 86 mu g/L, using adult animals collected from the field, In contrast, the LC50 for copper in freshwater sediment and the sediment pore water were 840 mg/kg (dry weight) and 99 mu g/L, respectively. The LC50 for ammonia (total) in freshwater-only at FH 7 was 5.5 mg/L. In contrast, the LC50 for ammonia (total) in freshwater sediment and the sediment pore water were 110 mg/kg (dry weight) and 6 mg/L, respectively. Laboratory cultures of 5 parts per thousand to 15 parts per thousand salinity were optimal for supporting the release of juveniles. Juveniles collected from laboratory cultures had a LC50 for copper in 5 parts per thousand and 10 parts per thousand salinity of 9 mu g/L and 28.5 mu g/L, respectively, in water-only exposures. The juveniles would he suitable for use in the development of a chronic sediment toxicity test with growth as the endpoint.
#|Hynes-HBN; Patrick-R; Ghetti-PF; Cairns-J Jr.; Conquest-LL; Stewart-AJ; Hughes-RM; Cummins-KW; Moyle-PB; Lenat-DR; Kratz-TK; Charles-DF; Paulsen-SG; Gurtz-ME; Karr-JR; Loeb-S; Spacie-A.  Biological monitoring of aquatic systems. 1994, 381 pp.  Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Inc.; Boca Raton, Florida; USA .  This book contains 16 chapters and is divided into 6 sections: Introduction - an ecological context for biological monitoring (S.L. Loeb); Background and perspective - historical perspective and future direction of biological monitoring of aquatic systems (H.B.N. Hynes), what are the requirements for an effective biomonitor? (R. Patrick), European perspective on biological monitoring (P.F. Ghetti & O. Ravera); Experimental design - the statistical validity of biomonitoring data (J. Cairns, Jr. & E.P. Smith), implementation of large-scale stream monitoring efforts: sampling design and data analysis issues (L.L. Conquest et al.), spatial and temporal variation in biological monitoring data (A.J. Stewart & J.M. Loar), use of ecoregions in biological monitoring ( R.M. Hughes et al.); Community responses - bioassessment and analysis of functional organization of running water ecosystems (K.W. Cummins), biodiversity, biomonitoring and the structure of stream fish communities (P.B. Moyle), using benthic macroinvertebrate community structure for rapid, cost-effective, water quality monitoring: rapid bioassessment (D.R. Lenat & M.T. Barbour), landscape position, scaling and the spatial temporal variability of ecological parameters: considerations for biological monitoring (T.K. Kratz et al.), palaeoreconstruction of the environmental status of aquatic systems (D.F. Charles et al.); Program considerations - biological monitoring in the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (S.G. Paulsen & R.A. Linthurst), design considerations for biological components of the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program (M.E. Gurtz); and Conclusion - biological monitoring: challenges for the future (J.R. Karr).
#|Ince NH; Erdogdu G.  Toxicity screening, assessment, and reduction in an industrial wastewater treatment plant.  WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH, 1998, V70, N6 (SEP-OCT), P 1170-1177.  WATER ENVIRONMENT FEDERATION, 601 WYTHE ST, ALEXANDRIA, VA., 22314-1994.  The toxicity reduction capacity of a central wastewater treatment plant (CWTP) receiving 21 000 metric ton/d of industrial wastewater was thoroughly investigated using a whole-effluent approach with a Microtox(TM) Toxicity Analyzer System. It was found that the highly toxic wastewater introduced into the CWTP was almost completely detoxified during secondary treatment with a recycled activated-sludge system. The removal mechanism was shown to be a combination of adsorption, volatilization, and biodegradation, the first two being more clear than the other. Fractionation of toxic streams within the treatment plant provided valuable information about the general characteristics of the toxicity-causing agents in the wastewater, namely that they were primarily composed of filterable and dissolved solids, volatile organics, and nitrogenous compounds. A toxicity reduction evaluation survey within the plant revealed that the observed Microtox(TM) toxicity could be readily removed by treatment with powdered activated carbon (PAC) and mechanical aeration at properly selected operating conditions. The correlation between toxicity removal and the applied PAC dose was found to be exponential and asymptotic to the ultimate effective toxicant concentration of the effluent. Reductions in chemical oxygen demand and dissolved organic carbon during PAC treatment were also related to the applied PAC dose and the initial concentrations of the parameter. Removal of volatile components of-toxicity by aeration was correlated with detention time by a power function.
#|Isaac R A, Gil L, Cooperman A N, Hulme K, Eddy B, Ruiz M, Jacobson K, Larson C, & Pancorbo O C.  Corrosion in drinking water distribution systems: A major contributor of copper and lead to wastewaters and effluents.  Environmental Science & Technology, 31 (11), 1997, 3198-3203. Corrosion, even in water supply systems with treatment to reduce it, can be a major contributor of copper and lead to both treated municipal (publicly owned treatment works, POTW) wastewater effluents and biosolids. Lead and copper concentrations were measured at several points in the water/wastewater systems of four Massachusetts municipalities. Domestic wastewater was found to contain concentrations of lead and copper significantly higher (p lt 0.05) than those in source waters. For each facility, the median concentration of Cu in domestic wastewater was a substantial fraction of the median concentration found in the influent to the POTWs with ratios of 0.36, 0.41, 0.65, and 1.25 for Gardner, New Bedford, Fall River, and Clinton, respectively. The values for lead, in the same order, were 0.28, 0.19, 0.17, and 0.69 (this last ratio based on mean values). Data from the study indicate that minimizing influent concentrations of Cu and Pb to POTWs is an important control factor since the finding of constant removal efficiency for these two constituents means that the higher their concentrations in the influent, the higher they will be in the effluent. These observations strongly support the concern that corrosive drinking water contributes substantially to exceeding, at a minimum, water quality criteria for copper, where dilution of wastewater effluents is low. In turn, this argues for corrosion reduction efforts in water supply systems and the means by which such controls are effected to consider impacts on wastewater as well, which generally is not now done.
#|Ismail, N.  Wastewater reuse for irrigation in arid regions.  Water for a changing global community. Proceedings of theme A - managing water:  coping with scarcity and abundance.  27th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, San Francisco, California, USA, 10-15 August 1997.  Conference Title:  Water for a changing global community. Proceedings of theme A - managing water:  coping with scarcity and abundance. 27th Congress of the International Association for Hydraulic Research, San Francisco, California, USA, 10-15 August 1997. p.296-30.  1997.  Editors:  English, M.  American Society of Civil Engineers New York.  Effluents discharged from natural waste water treatment plants in arid regions were tested against quality standards for irrigation with treated sewage water.  Data were collected from Jordan's Khirbet es Samra natural treatment plant which discharged into the Zerka River. Water quality parameters measured further downstream showed high organic/inorganic loads indicating insufficient microbial oxidation and possible unauthorized waste dumping. Data taken from the plant effluent compared reasonably well with similar plants in Saudi Arabia and U.S.A. and showed that treated waste water could be used for restricted irrigation. Further use for unrestricted irrigation could be permitted if operational management of oxidation ponds and receiving surface water were well controlled.
#|Iversen T M. Fish farming in Denmark: Environmental impact of regulative legislation. Water Science and Technology  31 (10):p73-84 1995.
#|Jain, C K.  Application of chemical mass balance to upstream/downstream river monitoring data.  JOURNAL OF HYDROLOGY (AMSTERDAM) vol. 182, no. 1-4, pp. 105-115, 1996.  The river Kali in western Uttar Pradesh (India) has been heavily influenced by the discharge of untreated municipal, agricultural, and industrial effluents. In the main channel of the river, the metal contamination was found to be three to four times the background level.  The concentration of iron, zinc, and copper was 0.41, 0.04, and 0.015 mg l super(-1), respectively, in the upstream section during October.  The same were 0.56, 0.07, and 0.016 mg l super(-1), during December.  Comparisons between upstream and downstream monitoring sites reveal changes in the concentration and/or load to the river and can be used to discriminate between point and non-point sources of pollution for these elements in the river. The resulting differential loadings, if adjusted for uncharacterized non-point contribution to the load, may represent the total point source load to the river minus any losses due to volatilization, settling, and/or degradation. Mass balance calculations conducted for iron, zinc, and copper indicated that additional inputs are needed to account for the observed differences in load along the river. The sources may include non-point sources of pollution due to agricultural activities, sediment remobilization or entrainment, groundwater intrusion or from a combination of these sources. The difference may also be attributed to some point sources of pollution which could not be identified in the course of investigations.
#|JANES N, PLAYLE RC.  MODELING SILVER-BINDING TO GILLS OF RAINBOW-TROUT (ONCORHYNCHUS-MYKISS).  ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 14: (11) 1847-1858 NOV 1995.  Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, 1-3 g) were exposed to similar to 0.1 mu M silver (Ag) (similar to 11 mu g . L(-1) Ag) for 2 to 3 h in synthetic soft water (Ca, Na similar to 300 mu M, PH 6.5-7.5) to which was added Ca, Na, H+, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), Cl, or thiosulfate (S2O3). Gills were extracted and gill Ag concentrations were measured using graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The concentrations of cations (Ca, Na, H+) and complexing agents (DOC, Cl, S2O3) needed to keep Ag off the gills were used to calculate conditional equilibrium binding constants (K) at the gills. Log K for Ag-gill binding was 10.0, with approximately 1.3 nmol Ag binding sites per fish. All experimentally determined log K values were entered into an aquatic chemistry equilibrium model, MINEQL(+), to predict Ag binding at trout gills. For a series of natural waters, model-predicted gill Ag concentrations, correlated well withobserved gill Ag concentrations, with one exception, very hard city of Waterloo tapwater. This exception may indicate a kinetic constraint on the thermodynamic basis of the model.
#|JANES N; HOLLIS L; SIOCHOWICZ K; PLAYLE R.  EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND THIOSULPHATE ON UPTAKE OF SILVER BY RAINBOW TROUT ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS.  TWENTY-THIRD ANNUAL AQUATIC TOXICITY WORKSHOP, CALGARY, ALBERTA, CANADA, OCTOBER 7-9, 1996.  CANADIAN TECHNICAL REPORT OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC SCIENCES; 0 (2144). 1997. 168.  ONCORHYNCHUS-MYKISS RAINBOW TROUT FISH SILVER TOXIN UPTAKE TEMPERATURE THIOSULFATE COMPLEXING AGENT METABOLIC RATE BLOOD METABOLISM TOXICITY BLOOD AND LYMPHATICS.
#|Janssen, M P M ; Oosterhoff, C ; Heijmans, G J S M ; Van der Voet, H. The toxicity of metal salts and the population growth of the ciliate Colpoda cucculus.  BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY vol. 54, no. 4, pp.597-605, 1995.  Legislation to regulate the release of newly produced chemicals in the environment requires routine testing to avoid possible side effects on non target organisms. Such tests have been reasonably well developed for the aquatic environment (Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 1976). Screening procedures for the terrestrial environment are scarce and less advanced. A procedure in which colonization of protozoa in diluted percolate was used todetermine the risk at hazardous waste sites has been developed recently. Toxicity of compounds may differ considerably between taxonomic groups. Freshwater protozoa are more sensitive to certain compounds than representatives from other taxonomic groups, and considerable differences within protozoa have also been observed. It may be hypothesized that the same is also true for soil protozoa. Protozoa occur in high numbers in the litter layers where they play an important role in the regulation of microorganisms and in the recycling of organic material. The highest impact of air borne compounds can be expected in the upper soil layers. As protozoa are confined to soil pore water, effects of soluble compounds can be expected via uptake from the surrounding medium. In spite of their imp