Typical exam questions from previous years:

• Characterize the studies from all the assigned readings as descriptive, comparative, or experimental (identify as field or lab) studies. Comment briefly if the experimental design is noteworthy (e.g., with respect to using gradients). A table may be the most efficient way to present this information, with author, type of study, and comments as column headings.
• Differentiate between competition and interference.
• Differentiate between competition and density dependence.
• Evaluate research by Gurevitch (1986) on Stipa, Fowler and Antonovics' (1982) in a North Carolina grassland, and Wilson and Tilman (1993) on nitrogen and disturbance in the context of Connell's (1980) experimental protocol for competition experiments.
• Convergent evolution is commonly invoked to explain adaptative similarities in co-occurring organisms. Conversely, coexisting organisms occupy different niches (i.e., niche differentiation is commonly invoked to explain coexistence). Explain this apparent contradiction.
• Devise a classification system for resources that is different than those we discussed in class. Operationalize the classification system by indicating what to measure and how to measure it.
• Overlapping curves of resource utilization are commonly used to study competition. Why? What do these curves tell us about competition?
• According to Keddy (1989) "the ultimate test of the value of our work is whether we really can make predictions about the real world." Give an example of the type of question you think ecologists should be trying to answer. State a falsifiable hypothesis (sensu Kuhn and Popper), and outline a research program to answer the question.
• Discuss the expected ecological and evolutionary consequences of asymmetric competition between two populations.
• Design an experiment to evaluate diffuse competition.
• According to Paul Keddy, "removal experiments demonstrate density-dependence, but density-dependence does not demonstrate competition." Why might Joe Connell agree with this statement?
• What should be the objectives for the next generation of ecological models? What criteria should these models satisfy?
• What is the "paradox of plankton?" Explain its relevance to humanity, if any.
• Design and briefly describe an experiment to evaluate the relative contribution of dominance hierarchies and resource partitioning on a site.
• Should ecologists emphasize development of theory or collection of facts? Defend your view.
• What is the role and importance of measuring physiological parameters (sensu Wieland and Bazzaz) in studies of interactions between plants?
• Design and briefly describe an experiment to evaluate the relative contribution of direct (i.e., competition or interference) and indirect effects (i.e., 'apparent' competition) of warm-season grasses on growth and survival of Quercus emoryi.
• Define a long-term goal for research on competition.
• Is development of competition theory relevant to humanity? Why or why not?
• What kinds of competition would you expect with different types/availabilities of resources? Use Keddy's (1989) classification system for resources (Fig. 1.2) and his terminology for kinds of competition.
• What are the key components of the community concept, according to Clements? According to Gleason?
• Classify the views of Grisebach, Mobius, Egler, and McIntosh as Clementsian or Gleasonian. Defend your classification for each ecologist.
• In your own words, define a plant community. Would you classify your view as Clementsian or Gleasonian? Why?
• PCA was at first eagerly welcomed by quantitatively oriented ecologists as a relatively objective method of ordination. As its use became widespread, various theoretical and comparative studies showed that the method has several noteworthy disadvantages when applied to plant ecological data. Concisely discuss these disadvantages, and their importance in the interpretation of the results of the method.
• Why do community ecologists rely heavily on multivariate techniques?
• What are the goals of multivariate analyses? What are the primary limitations? Consider multivariate analyses generally, without undue consideration of individual techniques.
• Compare and contrast indirect ordination and cluster analysis. Consider at least the following: objectives, assumptions, and appropriateness for ecological data. Which general category of technique do you think is best? Why?
• Write your previous definition of a plant community, verbatim (see note card). Based on any new information you may have acquired over the last several weeks, write and defend a new definition. In your answer, discuss the similarities and differences in your definitions.
• We talked about 3 different techniques for determining appropriate sample size for community studies. Compare and contrast them for a specific community (briefly describe or name the community).
• Who developed PCA, and why? Given your answer, are there any reasons to expect PCA to be an appropriate tool for studying plant communities? If so, what are they?
• One of your graduate student colleagues brings you the figure and table on the back of this page, and asks "how many communities are there?" Provide an appropriate response.
• Calculate s, 1/c, e^H', and E for the following two collections. Show calculations.
• Which dominance-diversity model discussed in class is most appropriate for the following data? Use a graph to support your interpretation, and briefly defend your choice.
• The "holy grail" of physics is to derive a Theory of Everything, linking together the several theories that describe the physical universe. Consider a Theory of Everything for ECOLOGY: briefly describe the components and potential linkages that should be included. Do not limit your discussion to plant ecology.
• Most of you concluded that geomorphic position was the primary factor underlying community structure in the Garden Canyon dataset. This is a candidate explanation for an observed pattern (i.e., it is a hypothesis). How would you test this hypothesis?
• R.H. Peters (in his book, A Critique for Ecology) takes an extreme view of ecology, indicating that understanding how systems work is irrelevant: all we need are empirical data that allow us to predict Y from X. Keddy echoes this view (in his book, Competition): "the ultimate test of the value of our work is whether we really can make predictions about the real world." At the other extreme are most molecular biologists, who believe that understanding is all-important, and application of knowledge is a pedestrian exercise best left to people with little talent. Where do you fall on the continuum of viewpoints between "only prediction is important" and "nothing is important except understanding"? Defend your stance.
• Select and briefly describe a plant community (from the literature or your personal experience). Select (a) a measure of evenness, and (b) a dominance-diversity model that you think are most appropriate in describing the response of the community to disturbance. Defend your selection.
• Tilman's view of succession is much different than that of Clements, because of incremental changes in the concept of succession. Outline key steps in the "succession" of succession, from Clements to Tilman.
• Some scientists have said that "ecology is the study of ecologists." Defend this view.
• Now, argue against the viewpoint that ecology is a social "science."
• Compare and contrast natural history and ecology.
• Humans have a tendency to erect dichotomies (e.g., between theoretical and applied ecological research). List and briefly annotate several important applied questions that can stimulate theory.
• "Importance" is used several different ways by ecologists, but usually with reference to structure. Pearson's (1942, Ecol. Monogr. 12:315-338) example of Arizona fescue as a "functional dominant" in ponderosa pine forests is an exception. How do we know which species are functionally dominant? Give an example of a specific technique that you might use to determine the dominant species in a community, from a functional standpoint.
• Within the context of succession theory, what are equilibrium and non-equilibrium communities? List several "behaviors" of non-equilibrium communities.