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CONTRIBUTION AND CITIZENSHIP OUTCOMES
In the NCEO model adopted by the Children's Workgroup (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), the outcome domain for Contribution and Citizenship addresses: 1) compliance with rules, limits, and routines, and 2) acceptance of responsibility for age-appropriate tasks at home and school. While many researchers consider contribution and citizenship a subset of social skills development in children, the NCEO model treats this conceptual area as a separate outcome domain. When we examine the social behaviors mentioned as important to peers and teachers in the short-term, and those associated with later delinquency, it is apparent that addressing contribution and citizenship separately is valuable.
NCEO
Contribution and Citizenship Model
Peer relationships are very important to children, and when they are asked to rate classmates according to whether they like, dislike, or ignore them (a research procedure called a sociometric study), the qualities they like in peers include skills and behaviors associated with contribution and citizenship (Cartledge & Milburn, 1995). Specifically, in sociometric studies children describe peers they like in terms of their altruism, participation in play activities, kindness, and helpfulness (Dygdon, Conger, Conger, Wallanda, & Keane, 1980; Hartup, 1970). Teachers cite a separate but related set of social skills which tend to facilitate their task of teaching academics. The skills rated as more important by teachers concern order, cooperative behavior, accepting consequences, following rules and directions, avoiding conflict, and basic self-help behavior (Milburn, 1974). Focusing on these behaviors has been criticized by some as overvaluing quiet, controlled, docile and conforming behaviors (Winnett & Winkler, 1972). However, there can be little doubt that respect for rules and social norms is necessary if children are to function well both in peer groups and in organized situations such as classrooms.
In the long term, similar skills are necessary
if children are to avoid delinquency as they grow into adolescence. Socialization
(the learning and adoption of socially accepted values and behavior) has
received less attention as an outcome in studies of long-term effects of
early childhood interventions than have cognitive and school-related outcomes
(Barnett, 1995). Nevertheless, researchers seeking factors which might
be addressed in early childhood to prevent chronic delinquency suggest
that the strongest predictor of delinquency is a history of antisocial
behavior or conduct disorder in childhood (Yoshikawa, 1995). Low socioeconomic
status, low cognitive ability, having parents who were convicted of crimes,
and poor parenting are other early risk factors for delinquency. Patterson’s
"coercion model" describes how unskilled parents can inadvertently reinforce
a child’s antisocial behaviors (such as noncompliance with rules and social
norms, aggression, or tantrums) by using a combination of inconsistent,
harsh and ineffective discipline techniques. The parent gives in to the
negative behavior at times, but disciplines harshly or explosively at other
times. The child learns to counter these punitive acts by the parent with
more aggressive behavior or tantrums, leading to escalating "coercive interchanges"
(Baum & Forehand, 1981; Patterson, 1986).
Outcome Components
The NCEO model (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), as adapted for use in community-based programs, specifies two primary outcomes in this domain:
- The child complies with rules, limits, and routines
- The child volunteers for age-appropriate tasks at home, school, and in the community
The following are some appropriate indicators of positive program outcomes for children in the area of contribution and citizenship, based on the NCEO model (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), as adapted for community-based programs by the Children’s Outcome Work Group. The appropriateness of any given indicator on the list for evaluating your program depends on the age of the children you serve, and the goals and activities of your particular program:
- Number and percent of children who participate in routine activities
- Number and percent of children who follow established rules/limits
- Number and percent of children who perform their assigned tasks at school, at home, and in community-based program settings
- Number and percent of children who are considerate of others and engage in helping behaviors
- Number and percent of children who cooperate with peers and who volunteer to help peers with classroom or program tasks
Respect for rules and social norms is necessary
if children are to be able to function well both in peer groups and in
organized situations such as classrooms. Similar skills are necessary in
the long term if children are to avoid delinquency and make positive contributions
as they grow older. In addition to looking at other kinds of social development
outcomes (see Children’s Program Outcomes, Personal and Social Adjustment),
State Strengthening project managers can look for indicators of achieving
the outcomes of compliance with age-appropriate rules, limits and routines,
volunteering, and acceptance of responsibility for age-appropriate tasks
at home, at school, and in community-based settings.
References
Barnett, W. S. (1995). Long-term effects of early childhood programs on cognitive and school outcomes. The Future of Children, 5 (3). Los Altos, CA: The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Center for the Future of Children, 25-50.
Baum, C. J., & Forehand, R. (1981). Long term follow-up assessment of parent training by use of multiple outcome measures. Behavior Therapy, 12, 643-52.
Cartledge, G., & Milburn, J. F. (Eds.) (1995). Teaching social skills to children and youth: Innovative approaches (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Dygdon, J., Conger, A. J., Conger, J. D., Wallanda, J. L., & Keane, S. P. (1980). Behavioral correlates of social competence and dysfunction in early childhood. Paper presented the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Montreal, Canada.
Hartup, W. W. (1970). Peer interaction and social organization. In P. H. Mussen(Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology: Vol. 2. New York: Wiley.
Milburn, J F. (1974). Special education and regular class teacher attitudes regarding social behaviors of children: Steps toward the development of a social skills curriculum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University. Columbus.
Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432-444.
Winnett, R. A., & Winkler, R. C. (1972). Current behavior modification in the classroom: Be still, be quiet, be docile. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 499-504.
Yoshikawa, H. (1995). Long-term effects of early childhood programs on social outcomes and delinquency. The Future of Children, 5 (3). Los Altos, CA: The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Center for the Future of Children, 51-75.
Ysseldyke, J. E., & Thurlow, M. (1993, October). Developing a model of educational outcomes (NCEO Report No. 1). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
Ysseldyke, J. E., Thurlow, M. L., & Erickson, R. N. (1993). Educational outcomes and indicators for early childhood (Age 6). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
Ysseldyke, J. E. (1993). Educational outcomes and indicators for early childhood (Age 3). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
Ysseldyke, J. E. (1994). Educational outcomes and indicators for grade 4. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
Ysseldyke, J. E. (1994). Educational outcomes
and indicators for grade 8. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota,
College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
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