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Program Outcomes for Youth
Social
Competencies
Social Responsibility
Bibliography
Theories and Theoretical Perspectives
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996).
Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(2), 364-374.
Examined are the roles of the mechanism of moral disengagement in the
exercise of moral agency. The researchers study the linkage of moral acts
to worthy purposes, obscuring personal causal agency by displacement and
diffusion of responsibility, misrepresenting or disregarding harm inflicted
on others, and the vilification of recipients of harm by blaming and dehumanizing
them. Also investigated are linkages to detrimental conduct.
Berman, S. (1997). Social Consciousness and the Development of Social
Responsibility. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
This book draws on the literature of moral development, citizenship education,
political socialization, prosocial development, and psychosocial development
in attempting to understand and provide a new theoretical framework for
the development of social responsibility and social consciousness in adolescents.
The theoretical framework discussed uses social consciousness and social
responsibility as its central organizational theme. The author argues
that the concept of social responsibility is actually a reconceptualization
and expansion of work previously done in citizenship education. In contrast
to citizenship education which focuses on the broader issues of individual
liberty, justice, tolerance, equality, and responsibility, social responsibility
focuses on the nature of the adolescents' relationship with others, as
well as the larger social and political world. The concept of social responsibility
presented is developed as having a several dimensions. These include the
recognition that the individual is rooted within a larger social network,
that relationships are framed by the ethical considerations of justice
and care, one acts with integrity, and that social responsibility involves
active participation. In addition to detailed chapters on the development
of social responsibility, consciousness and activism, and the processes
that promote development, there are three chapters detailing educational
interventions, policy and practice, and the teaching of social responsibility.
Included in the appendix is The Model District-Wide Curriculum Assessment
used by the Educators for Social Responsibility (ESR) and 12 suburban
Boston school districts in their 1989 project, Educating for Living in
a Nuclear Age (ELNA).
Berman, S., & La Farge, P. (1993). Promising Practices in Teaching Social
Responsibility. New York: State University of New York Press.
This book was developed by Educators for Social Responsibility as part
of the Educating for Living in the Nuclear Age Project. The fifteen chapters
represent the work of a group of teachers devoted to preparing adolescents
to be responsible citizens by using informed, participatory methods of
teaching. The argument is set forth that the lack of emphasis on social
responsibility has come from a mistaken assumption that by focusing on
individual self-realization, the schools will turn out good citizens.
In order for adolescents' to learn social responsibility, adults must
invest time, attention, and intention in a culture and school environments
that promote and reinforce self-esteem, creates empowerment, cooperation,
compassion, and respect. The teachers represented in this book vary widely
in the grades and subject areas they teach, as well as they types of communities
they live in. Each has their own approach and their own point of entry
with their own unique emphasis. Among the chapter subjects are cooperative
learning, literature in the classroom, educating for a multicultural perspective,
conflict resolution, teaching science, math, and art in conjunction with
social responsibility, and teaching for participation in the community.
Included are short bibliographies of the contributors and their respective
schools.
Hartup, W. W., & van Lieshout, C. F. (1995). Personality development in
social context. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, p. 655-687.
This article contains a review of the current literature on the social
context of personality development. The developmental pathways of antisocial
behavior, social inhibition, and social responsibility are examined.
Youniss, J. & Yates, M. (1997). Community Service and Social Responsibility.
University of Chicago Press: Chicago.
The authors' theory of community service is based heavily on Erikson's
identity theory. In identity development, the authors argue the definition
implies agency, i.e., a sense one can make a difference in society, and
social responsibility or a concern for society's well being. Theory that
youth participation in solving social problems has potential to promote
development of personal and collective identity. The study describes a
theory of how service stimulates political-moral agency and social responsibility.
The study was yearlong and school-based in a predominately Black middle-class
community. It is not a statistical study with quantitative measures, sampling
procedures, or multi group comparative designs. Rather it is qualitative
based data generated to reflect students understanding of service, self,
and society. Among the book chapter topics are a theoretical framework
for service, forming a political habit, getting to know the homeless,
on being a Black American, and ideas for designing and implementing community
service programs.
Social Responsibility and Academic Performance
Wentzel, K. R. (1991). Relations between social competence and academic
achievement in early adolescence. Child Development, 62(5), 1066-1078.
This study examines relations between academic performance and 3 aspects
of social competence: social responsibility, peer relations, and self-regulatory
processes. Participants were 423 6th and 7th grade male and female students
from a predominately working class, Midwestern community. Academic achievement
was indexed by the student grade point average. When accounting for participants'
grades, IQ, sex, ethnicity, school absence, and family structure, socially
responsible behavior was found to mediate relations between grades and
social competence in peer relations and self-regulatory processes. The
author argues that the results suggest that socially responsible behavior
is critical classroom social competence as well as an important indicator
of academic performance in early adolescence.
Social Responsibility and Development Issues
Ford, M. E., Wentzel, K. R., Wood, D., Stevens, E., & Siesfeld, G. A.
(1989). Processes associated with integrative social competence: Emotional
and contextual influences on adolescent social responsibility. Journal
of Adolescent Research, 4(4), 405-425.
The authors analyzed the responses of 218 adolescents of their self-reported
predicted behavioral choices and anticipated emotional responses in situations
involving a conflict between a socially responsible behavior and a socially
irresponsible course of action. It was found that males, as opposed to
females, made fewer responsible choices. Socially responsible choices
were found to be associated with guilt, fear, pride, and empathy, but
not with the anticipation of strong self-interest emotions or worry about
peer approval. The authors suggest that integrative social competence,
as embodied by the culturally desired outcome of social responsibility,
may be somewhat removed from the traditional emphasis in the literature
on social understanding and social inferencing capabilities. Suggestions
for future research include the need to examine the processes that govern
the resolution in real-life situations of social responsibility conflicts,
the need to consider a broader range of process variables, and an exploration
of whether the same processes regulate the behavior of different individuals.
Greenberger, E. (1984). Defining psychosocial maturity in adolescence.
Advances in Child Behavioral Analysis and Therapy, 3, 1-37.
The author discusses the minimum level of autonomy and social responsibility
expected by society of those individuals who have completed adolescence.
Attributes of social responsibility include social commitment, tolerance
of individual and cultural differences, and openness to sociopolitical
change. In looking at previous research, the author found that autonomy
was positively associated with better family relations and a higher level
of involvement in school. In addition, there is a strong association between
academic achievement and social responsibility. The findings suggest however,
that family involvement does not predict attitudes toward social responsibility.
Social Responsibility and Employment
Kablaoui, B. N., & Pautler, A. J. (1991). The effects of part-time work
experience on high school students. Journal of Career Development, 17(3),
195-211.
This article discusses the relationship between adolescent employment
and academic achievement of high school students. Data for the investigation
was obtained from microfiche, journal articles, dissertations, and published
books covering a 10-year span. The authors report the negative effect
of employment has been found in the areas of grades, homework, extracurricular
activities, behavior, and academic relationships. Positive effects of
employment have been found with respect to increased personal responsibility
and earning power, the development of social skills, improved grades,
participation in school-related activities, lower unemployment, and better
jobs after graduation.
Keith, J. G., Nelson, C. S., Schlabach, J. H., & Thompson, C. J. (1990).
The relationship between parental employment and three measures of early
adolescent responsibility: Family-related, personal, and social. Special
issue: Parent work and early adolescent development. Journal of Early
Adolescence, 10(3), 399-415.
This study examines the relationship between changing parental employment
patterns and the development of responsibility in 174 adolescents ages
10-14. Parental employment status and gender of child were not found to
be related to personal responsibility. However, gender effects were significant
for family responsibility in both boys and girls who assumed traditional
male and female roles. Those adolescents from 2 parent homes, in contrast
to those from single-parent homes, participated in more socially responsible
volunteer activities, with girls found to participate more than did boys.
Kourany, R. F., & LaBarbera, J. D. (1986). Baby-sitting: A milestone in
early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 6(2), 197-200.
These authors argue that babysitting should be viewed as an experience
that provides adolescents with valuable opportunities to practice adult
role behavior. Findings suggest that the adolescent's involved in the
study benefited in the form of independence from adult supervision and
financial responsibility.
Social Responsibility and Health
LeCoq, L. L., & Capuzzi, D. (1984). Preventing adolescent drug abuse.
Humanistic Education and Development. 155-169.
Presented is a group-counseling model designed to assist adolescents in
the identity and modification of personal coping behaviors, communication,
personal relationship skills, and taking responsibility for personal decisions,
choices, and behaviors. The program is specifically aimed at helping adolescents
develop belief and attitude structures and decision-making and coping
skills. Seven sessions are outlined and include specific goals to achieve
during each session. Goals in session one includes expressing structure,
rules, and processes of the group, and become acquainted with the members
of the group. Session two works on identifying coping behaviors by developing
awareness of feelings, thoughts, and recognition of personal coping behaviors
through the use of internal perceptions. Session three is designed to
establish specific behaviors change goals. This session includes both
small group and large group activities. Session four reinforces the concepts
of personal responsibility as opposed to blaming others, the concept of
controlling ones behavior as opposed to yielding that power to another,
and the recognition of self talk as a behavior shaper. Session five reinforces
the concept of personal responsibility for controlling behavior and explores
coping strategies when receiving attributions of blame. Communication
skills designed to assist the adolescent in developing better interpersonal
relationships are the focus of session six. Session six and seven deal
with fostering positive self-concept and group termination.
Social Responsibility and Human Rights
Avery, P. (1988). Adolescents, civic tolerance, and human rights. Social
Education, 534-537.
Discussed are challenges to the assumption of previous research regarding
civic tolerance among adolescents. The author investigates the extent
that adolescents are willing, as socially responsible individuals, to
extend basic human rights to groups for which they have the greatest dislike.
The sample included a stratified sample of 518 9th and 11th grade students.
Three tentative conclusions are suggested: 1) willingness to extend basic
human rights have a highly contextual factor and are dependent on the
particular rights involved; 2) there was more willingness to recognize
the rights of the accused and the least amount of willingness to extend
the rights of expression; and 3) although the formal rights of the U.S.
Constitution were recognized by the students, this recognition did not
appear to be a prerequisite to the students' willingness to extend particular
rights.
Schaefer, L. (1995). Reinventing civility. The NAMTA Journal, 20(1), 139-147.
The author discusses civility not just in terms of good manners, but with
respect to responsible behavior in the adolescents' role as a citizen
of their community. The concept of civility is argued to provide a solid
foundation for the adolescent's quest to assume a position of full participation
and responsibility in the community.
Social Responsibility and Peer Relations
Jarvinen, D. W., & Nicholls, J. G. (1996). Adolescents' social goals,
beliefs about the causes of social success, and satisfaction in peer relations.
Developmental Psychology, 32(3), 435-441.
These authors investigate several goals and beliefs viewed as connections
between goals and beliefs about behaviors or circumstances, i.e., being
sincere, being responsible, having status, and pretending to care, that
lead to successful peer relationships. Participants were 266 high school
freshman from a predominately White, middle-class community who attended
a Midwestern county high school. Students were measured using a Social
Goal Questionnaire designed to assess preferences for types of peer interaction
and a Social Satisfaction Questionnaire. The latter questionnaire was
a modified version of Asher, Hymel, and Renshaw's (1984) Loneliness and
Social Dissatisfaction Questionnaire and measured subjective satisfaction
in peer relationships. Support was found for the prediction of a meaningful
connection between sets of goals and beliefs.
Social Responsibility and Resiliency
Wise, K. L., Bundy, K. A., Bundy, E. A., & Wise, L. A. (1991). Social
skills training for young adolescents. Adolescence, 26(101), 233-241.
The focus of this article is on peer interactions and social responsibility.
A systematic assertiveness training program for adolescents was developed
based on Bandura's social cognitive theory. The goal of the researchers
was to develop a program for public education that was easily administered
and adaptable to scheduling needs. Participants were 42 6th grade students
in two classes in a middle school. One class received assertiveness training
while the other served as the control. The pretest, posttest, and follow-up
consisted of 26 questions. Pretest and follow-up questions were identical.
The posttest was matched with these tests for content and difficulty level.
Trained students performed better than the control group on the posttest
and on the 6-month follow-up. The assertiveness training aspect of the
program emphasizes socially acceptable ways of self-expression and is
viewed as appropriate training at the beginning stage of adolescence of
development.
Social Responsibility and Adolescent Sex
Blau, G. M., & Gullotta, T. P. (1993). Promoting sexual responsibility
in adolescence. In Adolescent Sexuality. Advances in Adolescent Development,
Vol. 5. T. P. Gullotta, G. R. Adams, and R Montemayor (Eds.). 181-203.
Sage Publications: Newbury Park, CA.
Reviewed are a variety of adolescent pregnancy intervention programs which
are divided into categories of education, promotion of social competency,
community organization/systems intervention, and natural caregiving. It
is argued that reluctance on the part of society to confront the moral
issue of teenage pregnancy has created a fragmented system of preventive
efforts with no unifying or cohesive framework. Compounding this they
contend is a large and diverse body of literature that confused the real
issues. Together these factors work against the creation of socially responsible
behavior on the part of adolescents who are entering into active sexual
behavior.
Social Responsibility and Volunteerism
Fendrich, J. M. (1993). Ideal Citizens: The Legacy of the Civil Rights
Movement. New York: State University of New York Press.
This book focuses on the long-range consequences of intense, youthful,
political experiences that occurred among those adolescents who were active
during the civil rights movement of the 1960's. In particular the author's
research was designed to determine what became of the 1960's civil rights
protestors, what kinds of citizens have they become, and how have their
careers developed. Results indicate that those who were activists in the
1960's are currently fully exercising their citizenship rights and are
more active politically than other members of their generation. The appendix
details an extensive set of tables representing the independent and dependent
variables used in the study. Details of the long-range effects of the
movement are presented.
Hamilton, S. F., & Fenzel, L. M. (1988). The impact of volunteer experience
on adolescent social development: Evidence of program effects. Journal
of Adolescent Research, 3(1), 65-80.
Two groups of 11-17 year olds were assigned to either childcare or community
service volunteer projects. Participants showed significant gains when
scored on the Social Responsibility subscale with girls showing greater
gains than boys.The participants cited improvement in their knowledge
of themselves and others, as well as the acquisition of new skills.
Hanks, M. (1981). Youth, voluntary associations and political socialization.
Social Forces, 60(1), 211-223.
Investigated is a model designed to estimate the effects of adolescent
participation in voluntary associations on early adult political activity.
Specifically explored were the possibility that youthful involvement in
organizations may contribute to the process of socialization to citizenship
and the significance of the type of organization. Data from the "National
Longitudinal Study (NLS) of the High School Class of 1972 was analyzed.
This data was collected from a representative sample of high school seniors
enrolled in some 1,200 public, private, and church schools within the
United States. Results indicate that adolescent participation in volunteer
organizations increased selective forms of political expression such as
the discussion of issues, campaign participation, and voting rates two
years later.
Holloway, W. B. (1982). Developing competence. Society, 9(6), 40-47.
This author argues that American society offers few outlets for experimenting
with adult roles and the difficulties in implementing youth-participation
strategies in adult run organizations. Most projects offer little opportunity
for youth to participate in planning and management. In order to develop
social responsibility there is a need for the adolescent to have the opportunity
to practice adult roles. It is argued that participation in organizations
should provide an adolescent with this opportunity but in reality seldom
does. One explanation offered is that adolescent capability in making
decisions and managing their affairs alone is threatening to the employment/training
bureaucracy. As many adult jobs depend on youth being totally incapability
in these areas, a program suggesting that youth should be allowed to manage
their own affairs on a limited degree results in a defensive reaction
from the adult bureaucracy.
Middleton, E. B., & Kelly, K. R. (1996). Effects of community service
on adolescent personality development. Counseling and Values, 40, 132-143.
This study uses both quantitative and qualitative analyses to evaluate
the effects of participation in community service activities on personality
development in high school students. The qualitative analysis provided
support for community service producing strong positive effects in the
participants, whereas quantitative analysis produced only limited evidence
for positive change. Two possible explanations for the discrepancy between
the qualitative and quantitative results are discussed: it may be that
while participation provided growth on several dimensions for the adolescents,
the length, intensity, and depth of participation may have been insufficient
to produce changes reflected in stable, enduring personality characteristics.
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