The effect of halosulfuron-methyl on the growth of purple nutsedge was compared to bentazon, glyphosate and imazaquin in greenhouse trials. Halosulfuron-methyl controlled nutsedge at 36, 54 and 72 g/ha but was not completely effective at 18 g/ha. Injury from halosulfuron-methyl was similar to glyphosate and imazaquin. Halosulfuron-methyl inhibited leaf elongation and dry weight accumulation, and then the leaves became chlorotic and desiccated. Bentazon caused leaf chlorosis and desiccation by at 3 DAT whereas injury symptoms had not appeared with glyphosate, imazaquin or halosulfuron-methyl. Bentazon did not inhibit regrowth so in effect this treatment only temporarily controlled top growth. Glyphosate controlled the purple nutsedge at all rates tested. Imazaquin was less effective than glyphosate although at the higher rates it effectively controlled nutsedge equal to glyphosate. Except for bentazon, each of the herbicides killed rhizomes, tubers and developing shoots. In field tests against a mature stand of purple nutsedge in a bermudagrass turf, halosulfuron-methyl decreased tuber viability and nutsedge populations. However, tubers capable of forming new shoots were present suggesting that the tubers escaped treatment because they were no longer attached by viable rhizomes to treated shoots.

Purple nutsedge has gained the reputation as the world's worst weed from its global distribution, competitiveness and its high vegetative reproductive capacity (1). In established turf, control of purple nutsedge is problematic because access to the perenniating tubers and rhizomes is hampered by the need to maintain a quality turf (2). However, as long as the rhizomes connecting tubers remain viable, selective, phloem mobile herbicides may be used to reduce these underground structures. Detached tubers or tubers that are no longer connected by viable rhizomes to parent plants may escape treatment from these herbicides and remain viable.

Some of the herbicides for sedge control include glyphosate, bentazon, and imazaquin. Halosulfuron-methyl, formerly known as MON 12000, is a new product for nutsedge control in turf (3, 4) that is safe on both warm- and cool-season grasses (5). The objectives of this study were: first, to compare the activity of halosulfuron-methyl for control of purple nutsedge to that of glyphosate, bentazon and imazaquin under greenhouse conditions; second, to determine the effect of halosulfuron-methyl under field conditions on purple nutsedge in bermudagrass turf with emphasis on the effect on tuber populations.

Purple nutsedge was vegetatively propagated from a single tuber until there was a sufficient number of plants with rhizomes of equal size to initiate experiments. These plants were established in a rooting medium consisting of Pima clay loam, vermiculite, sand, and peat (1:1:1:1;v:v) in 5 cm by 5 cm square pots. After three weeks, there were several new shoots emerging from rhizomes in each pot.

Halosulfuron-methyl, glyphosate and imazaquin were applied at 372 L/ha with a portable CO₂ sprayer equipped with two XR80015VS Teejet nozzles set 45 cm apart. Bentazon was applied with a CO₂ powered, hand-held sprayer at 4860 L/ha (5 ml per pot). Spray solutions were supplemented with 0.25% (v:v) of Unifilm 707 surfactant. Controls were sprayed with solutions containing surfactant only. The herbicide rates, shown in the tables, were selected to include the manufacturers recommended application rates.

The greenhouse experiment was performed at the University of Arizona Campus Agricultural Center during the summers of 1994 and 1995. Greenhouse temperatures were maintained at 40 C/24 C day/night with supplemental evaporative cooling. The second leaf in the whorl was marked with a permanent ink after herbicide application and leaf length was determined at 10 DAT. Injury ratings were made at 7, 14, 24, and 36 DAT. Phytotoxicity was estimated on a 0 (no injury) to 5 (severe) scale, and new growth was indicated by a 0 (none) or 1 (growth present). At 36 DAT, dry weights were determined after plants were removed from the pots, washed free of soil, and dried in an oven at 60 C.

Halosulfuron-methyl was evaluated in the field on Randolph Golf Course, Tucson, AZ., a public golf course, for its effect on nutsedge shoot growth, and tuber populations and viability. Studies had either one or two applications of halosulfuron-methyl. The study involving a single application of halosulfuron-methyl was initiated on September 1, 1994. The study site was selected for a uniform density of purple nutsedge. The site was located in a level, bermudagrass rough adjacent to a fairway in close proximity to a sprinkler head. The site was not shaded. Halosulfuron-methyl was applied at 18, 36, 54 and 72 g/ha.

Evaluations for injury to turf and nutsedge were made at 7, 14, 21, 28 and 42 DAT. At 4 WAT, three 11.4 cm diameter by 10.2 cm deep soil plugs were cut from each plot using a putting green cup cutter. The tubers contained within each plug were collected by washing the soil away from the plant mass on a fine mesh screen. The biomass of nutsedge plants, bermudagrass, and tubers was determined. Soil plugs were cut from the same plots in the spring on May 11, 1995.

To determine tuber viability, the tubers were counted and then placed in pots to facilitate germination and shoot regrowth. The percentage of tubers forming shoots were determined at 3 weeks after sowing. Tubers initiating regrowth were cut in half and found to have a turgid, white, storage parenchyma. Non germinating tubers that had a turgid, white, storage parenchyma were also considered viable. Non germinating tubers with a gray, brown or black storage parenchyma, as well as empty tubers were considered non viable.

The second study involving two applications of halosulfuron-methyl was initiated on July 12, 1995 with the second application made on September 6, 1995. The study site was selected for a uniform density of purple nutsedge. The site was partially shaded and located on the north facing slope of a hillock of bermudagrass rough adjacent to a fairway in close proximity to two sprinkler heads. Halosulfuron-methyl was applied at 18, 36, 54 and 72 g/ha.

Evaluations for injury to turf and nutsedge were made at 5, 12, 27, 46, 55, 67, 77, and 108 DAT. At 108 DAT, soil plugs were cut from each plot using a putting green cup cutter. Biomass determinations of bermudagrass and nutsedge, and estimations of tuber viability were made as previously described. Soil plugs were cut from the same plots in the spring on May 22, 1996.

Data Analysis. A completely randomized block design (CRB) with four replications per treatment was used in the greenhouse study. The study was repeated twice. Significant differences due to time of study were analyzed using SAS ANOVA and LSD (P=0.05). Nutsedge dry weight (P=0.0001) and length (P=0.0001) were the only factors affected by the time of the study. These differences due to time were removed when the dry weight (P=0.97) and leaf length (P=0.26) data were expressed as a percentage of untreated controls. The data from the two times were then combined to test for herbicide treatment and rate differences. All percentage data were arcsin transformed before statistical analysis. Each treatment was replicated four times and each experiment was repeated twice. Differences in treatments and rates were determined using SAS ANOVA and LSD (P=0.05).

In both field experiments the treatments were arranged in a CRB design with four replicates. Plots were 91.5 cm by 152.5 cm. Differences in treatments and rates were determined using SAS ANOVA and LSD (P=0.05). All percentage data were arcsin transformed before statistical analysis.

Greenhouse Studies.Table 1 shows the effect of halosulfuron-methyl on nutsedge dry weight reduction at 36 DAT and leaf length at 10 DAT in comparison to the effects of bentazon, glyphosate and imazaquin. Halosulfuron-methyl, imazaquin and glyphosate reduced nutsedge leaf elongation with halosulfuron-methyl and imazaquin causing the greatest reduction (Table 1). The three higher rates of imazaquin and halosulfuron-methyl greatly reduced nutsedge leaf length and performed better than the non-selective herbicide glyphosate. All rates of bentazon, on the other hand, resulted in an increase in leaf elongation. Although the greater proportion of the leaves of the bentazon treated nutsedge became desiccated and died, the total leaf length continued to increase because the herbicide did not inhibit growth at the meristem or formation of new leaves.

Table 1 also shows the effects of herbicides on dry weights of nutsedge tissue. The progressive decrease in dry weight with increasing herbicide concentration shows that the higher rates were more effective in terminating growth. Halosulfuron-methyl gave excellent control with greater than 80% dry weight reduction at all but the lowest rate. Except for the lowest rate of halosulfuron-methyl and the two lower rates of bentazon, all other herbicide rates reduced nutsedge dry weights by at least 50% (Table 1). Greater reductions occurred at the higher rates.

Initially, foliar phytotoxicity was greatest on bentazon- and glyphosate-treated nutsedge but was evident for the higher rates of all herbicide treatments (Table 2). The three higher rates of bentazon and two higher rates of glyphosate caused the most injury after 7 days. However, phytotoxicity from bentazon began to subside by 14 DAT and exhibited only moderate phytotoxicity at the highest rate by 36 DAT. Also, the recommended rate of bentazon was 1.1 kg/ha which is much below the rate found to cause severe injury to nutsedge (2.2 kg/ha). On the other hand, injury from the halosulfuron-methyl and glyphosate became quite severe by 14 DAT and had essentially killed all foliage at 24 DAT and 36 DAT. Rhizomes and tubers were also killed by these treatments. Imazaquin caused severe injury at the two higher rates, but never completely killed the foliage. Imazaquin damage was intermediate between bentazon and glyphosate for phytotoxicity.

The greenhouse study showed that a single foliar application of halosulfuron-methyl or glyphosate could kill above ground tissues and prevent regrowth from the below ground network of rhizomes and tubers that had originated from the single plant. Purple nutsedge infestations under field conditions may contain a population of rhizomes and tubers from the current year as well as from previous years, that originates from different clones or individual tubers, and be in various stages of maturation, dormancy or decline. Older tubers may remain interconnected but the rhizomes connecting the tubers may be dead and incapable of translocating herbicide. Hence, herbicides may not kill the target population in one application under field conditions. Therefore, it was of interest to compare the effect of one or two applications of halosulfuron-methyl on a natural population of purple nutsedge.

Field Studies. The objectives of the field studies were to determine the effect of halosulfuron-methyl on well established nutsedge populations so that an estimate of the effect on tuber populations could be made. In the first study, one application of halosulfuron-methyl was made on September 1, 1994. In the second studies, halosulfuron-methyl was applied on July 12 and September 6, 1995. Halosulfuron-methyl was applied to nutsedge infested bermudagrass plots at four rates. Weekly evaluations of the effect on the purple nutsedge and the bermudagrass were made. One application of halosulfuron-methyl effectively controlled the nutsedge in a rate dependent manner (Table 3). The bermudagrass re-established itself at the higher rates of halosulfuron-methyl indicating that the herbicide effectively reduced the competition between the nutsedge and the turf.

Table 3 shows the significant effect of halosulfuron-methyl on the purple nutsedge and turf parameters measured at the golf course test site. All rates tested resulted in decreased purple nutsedge in the plots by 25 to 39%, but the three higher rates controlled purple nutsedge equally. The four rates tested also reduced purple nutsedge plant height in the plots by about 22 mm. Phytotoxic effects were observed on the purple nutsedge plants but the degree of phytotoxicity was not strongly related to the application rate.

A time by rate interaction was observed for the percentage of purple nutsedge and purple nutsedge phytotoxicity in the field plots (Table 4). All treatment rates reduced the amount of purple nutsedge in the plots by the same amount while the percentage of purple nutsedge in unsprayed controls remained constant. Differences in purple nutsedge control due to the treatment rate began at 28 DAT. The three higher rates gave good suppression up until our last observation date at 42 DAT. Percent purple nutsedge in the 18 g/ha plots was nearly the same as the untreated controls at 42 DAT. By 42 DAT purple nutsedge in control plots was decreasing due to the onset of winter dormancy.

There was also a time by rate interaction for the phytotoxic effects of halosulfuron-methyl on the purple nutsedge foliage (Table 4). Phytotoxicity was present by 7 DAT for all sprayed plots with greater leaf burn at the three higher rates. Leaf desiccation and necrosis were greatest at 14 DAT and at the 54 g/ha rate. Phytotoxicity then decreased on the purple nutsedge foliage which remained in the plots and, except at 21 DAT, had the same degree of severity regardless of application rate. Leaf yellowing and lesions appeared in the control plots at 42 DAT due to onset of winter dormancy.

At 28 DAT, plugs of turf were removed, washed free of soil, and the components were separated, dried and weighed. Total bermudagrass biomass increased and nutsedge biomass decreased as halosulfuron-methyl application rate increased (Table 5). Bermudagrass was able to spread into plot area that had been covered with purple nutsedge. The total number of tubers found in the soil cores was lowest in the control and 72 g/ha treatment plots and a greater percentage of those tubers were also alive when compared to the three other rates of herbicide. However, this appeared to be due to a decrease in the weight of non-tuber biomass rather than in the weight of the tubers. Tuber weight per core was not significantly affected by treatment.

Soil cores were again cut in Spring 1995 to determine if treatment differences could still be detected. Total tuber counts were very similar to those obtained in the previous fall and no differences in number were measured due to treatments (Table 5). Individual tubers weighed considerably less in springtime when compared to the fall weights. Treatments had no affect on these weights so loss in weight was due to either a depletion in carbohydrate stores in these organs, or there was a greater percentage of lighter, dead tubers in the samples measured (as shown in Table 5). Treatments did reduce the percentage of live tubers in the plots by approximately 50% (18, 36, and 72 g/ha) to 75% (54 g/ha) when compared to the untreated controls (Table 5).

Table 6 shows the effect of halosulfuron-methyl on the percentage of nutsedge throughout the treatment period in 1995 when two applications of the herbicide were applied. For the first 27 days following the first application there was a decrease in the percentage of nutsedge in the treated plots. By day 46, the nutsedge was beginning to recover as evidenced by the increase in the percentage of purple nutsedge. The second application made on day 56 was very effective in reducing the percentage of purple nutsedge relative to the control plots.

There was a decrease in purple nutsedge as well as bermudagrass biomass as the rate of halosulfuron-methyl increased (Table 7). The decrease was not significant in either case. The decrease may be related to the decrease in vigor as the plants began to undergo senescence. Similarly, there was a decrease in tuber biomass and non tuber biomass but the decrease was not significant. There was no effect on the weight per tuber and number of tubers. However, tuber viability decreased 50% at the highest rate. These results indicated that there was translocation of the herbicide from the shoot to the tubers. Longer incubation in the soil may have been required to bring about a change in tuber weight. Also, many of the tubers may not have been connected to each other by functional rhizomes.

Soil cores were again cut on May 22, 1996. Tuber biomass and tuber number were not affected by the treatments although there was a significant reduction in tuber viability at 54 g/ha (Table 7).

For purple nutsedge control in turf, it is necessary to use herbicides that do not injure the turf yet control purple nutsedge shoot growth, rhizome and tuber production. In greenhouse tests, halosulfuron-methyl provided control comparable to glyphosate, and better than imazaquin and bentazon. The greenhouse studies showed that a single treatment of halosulfuron-methyl controlled purple nutsedge and prevented regrowth. This indicated that halosulfuron-methyl translocated and killed the rhizomes and developing tubers. Halosulfuron-methyl reduced purple nutsedge biomass in the field allowing the turf to become re-established. A single application of halosulfuron-methyl made several months prior to the end of the growing season reduced tubers and non tuber biomass. The viability of tubers harvested in the spring was also reduced indicating that halosulfuron-methyl reached some of the tubers in the soil core. Two applications of halosulfuron-methyl had more pronounced effects. Vencill et al. (6) also found that root and tuber biomass number was reduced by halosulfuron-methyl. However, tuber viability was not assessed in their studies. The single and double applications made in this study showed that viable tubers continued to exist in heavily infested purple nutsedge plots. Viable tubers were found in these plots in the following spring. Obviously, some of the tubers present in the soil were not affected by the herbicide. Perhaps they did not receive herbicide via translocation. Tubers that have become dormant or are disconnected from herbicide treated surface growth would not be capable of receiving halosulfuron-methyl via translocation. Thus, in a population of nutsedge, tubers that are no longer connected to the living network of rhizomes and above ground growth can serve to re-establish the population in subsequent years.

We would like to thank Richard Harris and Mike Acedo of Tucson Parks and Recreation Dept. for use of their facilities.

1. Holm, L. G., D. L. Plucknett, J. V. Pancho, and J. P. Herberger. 1977. The world's worst weeds: Distribution and biology. Univ. Of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

2. Kopec, D. M., J. J. Gilbert, R. A. Scott, and C. F. Mancino. 1991. Purple nutsedge herbicide trials at the University of Arizona 1990. 1991 Turfgrass and Ornamental Research Summary, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona. pp. 67-69.

3. Jackson, N. E., T. E. Dutt and D. C. Riego. 1992. MON 12000: A new herbicide for control of purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.) and yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) in turfgrass. Abs. Weed Sci. Soc. Am. 32:28.

4. Sherrick, S. L., A. P. Burkhalter, J. A. Cuarezma and J. F. Mason. 1993. MON 12000 - A new herbicide for control of purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) and yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) in turfgrass. Proc. South. Weed Sci. Soc. 46:99.

5. Holm, L. G., D. L. Plucknett, J. V. Pancho, and J. P. Herberger. 1977. The World's Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology. Univ. Of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

6. Vencill, K. W., J. S. Richburg, III, J. W. Wilcut and L. R. Hawf. 1995. Effect of MON 12037 on purple (Cyperus rotundus) and yellow (Cyperus esculentus) nutsedge. Weed Technol. 9:148-152.

Table 1. Effect of herbicide rates on nutsedge dry weight reduction at 36 DAT and leaf length at 10 DAT
expressed as a percentage of untreated controls.

Treatment	Rate	N	Dry Weight Reduction	Leaf Length
	(kg/ha)		(% untreated controls)a
Bentazon	0.6  1.1  1.7  2.2  LSD (0.05)	8  8  8  8	9.2b 27.5  52.8  53.1  26.1	136  136  117  127  29
Imazaquin	0.4  0.7  1.1  1.5  LSD (0.05)	8  8  8  8	62.4  70.0  76.1  79.2  9.3	93  48  50  51  27
Halosulfuron-methyl	0.018  0.036  0.054  0.072  LSD (0.05)	8  8  8  8	47.0  80.1  82.4  84.0  18.7	91  41  41  46  28
Glyphosate, acid	0.4  0.8  1.7  LSD (0.05)	4  4  4	60.4  68.5  81.6  7.9	79  72  71  9

^aUntreated control leaf length = 205 mm.

^bStatistical analysis performed on arsin transformed data.
 
 

Table 2. Effect of herbicide rates on nutsedge phytotoxicity at 7, 14, 24 and 36 DAT.
Treatment	Rate	N	Phytotoxicitya
			7 DAT	14 DAT	24 DAT	36 DAT
	(kg/ha)
Bentazon	0  0.6  1.1  1.7  2.2  LSD (0.05)	8  8  8  8  8	0.6  1.5  2.8  3.1  3.9  0.9	0.4  1.3  2.6  2.4  2.9  1.3	0.6  0.9  2.3  2.5  2.5  1.2	0.6  1.0  0.8  0.9  2.4  1.1
Imazaquin	0  0.4  0.7  1.1  1.5  LSD (0.05)	8  8  8  8  8	0.5 0.8 1.6  2.5  1.9  0.8	0.5  2.3  3.3  4.1  4.0  1.1	1.0  2.6  3.1  4.4  4.3  1.1	0.8  2.6  2.9  3.4  4.0  1.4
Halosulfuron-methy	0  0.018  0.036  0.054  0.072  LSD (0.05)	4  8  8  8  8	0.8  1.1  1.8  2.4  2.8  1.0	0.3  1.8  4.6  4.6  5.0  1.0	0.3  3.0  5.0  5.0  5.0  1.0	0.0  3.1  4.9  5.0  5.0  1.0
Glyphosate, acid	0  0.4  0.8  1.7  LSD (0.05)	4  4  4  4	0.8  1.3  3.5  4.0  1.3	0.3  4.0  5.0  5.0  0.5	0.3  4.8  5.0  5.0  0.5	0.0  4.8  5.0  5.0  0.4

^aFoliar phytotoxicity rated on a scale of 0 to 5 with 0 = no damage and 5 = severe damage.
 
 

Table 3. Mean response of purple nutsedge over a 42 day time period after a single application of 5 rates of halosulfuron-methyl.
Rate	Nutsedgea	Plant heightb	Phytotoxicityc
g/ha	%	mm
0.00	57d	64	0.5
18	32	42	1.5
36	21	42	1.8
54	23	32	2.2
72	18	42	1.6
LSD (0.05)	7.4	14.1	0.5

^aPercent nutsedge in bermudagrass turf plots maintained as a golf course rough.

^bHeight of nutsedge canopy 14 DAT and two days following mowing of the plots at 2.0 cm height of cut.

^cPhytotoxicity rated on a scale of 0 (none) to 5 (severe).

^dStatistical analysis of % nutsedge performed on arcsin transformations.
 
 

Table 4. Percentage of nutsedge in bermudagrass turf plots and degree of nutsedge leaf phytotoxicity after a single application of halosulfuron-methyl herbicide at 5 rates.
Rate	DAT
	7	14	21	28	42
(g/ha)	% Nutsedge
0.00	78a	60	70	63	43
18	23	30	35	40	35
36	18	23	25	20	18
54	28	28	18	13	20
72	13	18	18	20	19
LSD (0.05)	19.7	22.8	24.5	25.1	18.9
	Phytotoxicityb
0.00	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0	2.3
18	1.3	2.3	1.5	1.0	1.5
36	2.3	2.8	1.3	1.3	1.3
54	2.0	3.9	2.0	1.3	1.8
72	1.8	2.8	1.8	0.8	1.0
LSD (0.05)	0.6	1.7	0.6	1.8	1.8

^aStatistical analysis of percentage nutsedge performed on arcsin transformations.
 

^bFoliar phytotoxicity rated on a scale of 0 (none) to 5 (severe).

Table 5. Effect of a single application^a at five rates of Halosulfuron-methyl herbicide on bermudagrass and nutsedge biomass and tuber survival.

	Total Fall Biomass					Fall Tubers				Spring tubersc
	Bermudagrass	Nutsedge	Tubers	Non-tuber		Tubers	Wt/tuber	Tubers		Tubers	wt./tuber	Tubers
Rate (g/ha)	---------------------------g/3122 cm-3--------------------					---#---	----g----	% Viableb		---#---	-----g----	% Viable
0.00	27.1	64.2	36.8	27.4		204	0.177	43		222	0.04	23
18	25.4	70.7	44.8	25.9		253	0.179	37		222	0.04	14
36	42.5	52.7	38.2	14.5		227	0.168	33		220	0.03	12
54	36.9	54.8	40.0	14.9		229	0.178	37		196	0.03	8
72	45.8	37.5	28.4	9.0		185	0.156	46		196	0.03	12
LSD (0.05)	16.3	12.8	7.8	5.0		40.2	0.02	11.6		55.6	0.02	4.2

^aApplication made on September 1, 1994.

^bStatistical analysis of % viable data performed on arcsin transformations.

^cSpring tubers harvested on May 11, 1995.
 

Table 6. Percentage of nutsedge in bermudagrass plots following two applicationsa of halosulfuron-methyl herbicide at five rates.
Days after treatment initiation
Rate (g/ha)	5	12	27	46	55	67	77	108
0.00	53b	85	83	70	73	80	80	20
18	48	43	35	48	83	60	28	16
36	50	50	18	35	48	45	18	11
54	45	40	18	30	43	30	18	7
72	50	45	13	26	35	30	10	6
LSD (0.05)	13.4	26.0	20.9	24.2	23.7	23.0	9.0	12.8

^aApplicationss applied on July 12 and September 6, 1995.

^bStatistical analysis of % nutsedge performed on arcsin transformations.
 
 

Table 7. Effect of two applicationsa of halosulfuron-methyl herbicide on bermudagrass and nutsedge biomass and tuber survival at 108 DAT .
	Total Fall Biomass					Fall Tubers				Spring Tubersc
	Bermudagrass	Nutsedge	Tubers	Non-tuber		Tubers	Wt/tuber	Tubers		Tubers	Wt/tuber
Rate (g/ha)	------------------------g F. W. /3122 cm3----------------------					---#---	----g----	% Viableb		---#---	----g----	% Viable
0	3.3	21.9	20.9	1.0		242	0.089	71		187	38.3	55
18	3.8	20.8	19.8	1.0		263	0.075	50		235	43.3	56
36	3.4	18.7	17.5	1.2		251	0.070	41		195	33.1	44
54	2.9	18.2	17.4	0.8		221	0.079	44		177	34.1	31
72	2.2	15.7	15.1	0.6		222	0.068	34		182	35.4	41
LSD (0.05)	1.9	6.5	5.6	0.7		60.5	0.019	13.8		43.7	0.02	19.4

^aApplications made on July 12 and September 6, 1995.

^bStatistical analysis of % viable data performed on arcsin transformations.

^cSpring tubers harvested May 22, 1996.
 

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