ACADEMIC AND FUNCTIONAL LITERACY
Outcome Component 3:  Demonstrates Competence in
Pre-academic and Academic Skills

Introduction

Competence in pre-academic and academic skills is a key outcome that affects many areas of a child’s life.  Children who have strong pre-academic skills in early childhood are more likely to succeed in academic skills once they enter school.  School-age children with academic competence are more likely to complete school successfully, seek higher education, and get and keep a living-wage job.  Academic competence also has important effects on self-esteem and motivation.  Children who complete academic tasks successfully feel more confident of themselves and are more motivated to continue trying academic endeavors.  In contrast, children who experience repeated academic failure are more likely to give up and stop trying in school, a condition known as learned helplessness (Johnson, 1981). 

Children begin learning long before they begin formal schooling.  Learning is a process of interpreting and using new information and new experiences (Bredekamp. & Rosegrant, 1995).  During infancy and early childhood, regular exposure to a variety of enriching experiences actually affects the wiring of a child’s brain.  Based on the particular experiences that a child has, certain cells in the child’s brain build and strengthen connections to other cells.  These connections provide pathways that allow the brain to understand and use the new information.  Connections that are used regularly become stronger over time; connections that are not used will eventually wither and die.  By the time puberty begins, a child’s brain wiring is largely established.  After that age, subsequent learning does little to change existing brain pathways (Shore, 1997). 

New experiences alone are not enough to ensure optimal early brain development, however. In order to develop the most effective brain connections, children must have opportunities to explore and inquire, and then use and apply what they have learned (Whitman and Goodman, 1995).  The opportunities to explore provide the brain with new information, which leads to the formation of new pathways.  The opportunities to use and apply information lead to the strengthening of pathways that children use regularly, which increases the likelihood that they will become permanent (Shore, 1997).

For young children, many of their opportunities to explore and learn occur in the context of play.  Most infants and children have a natural curiosity and interest in their environment.  By exploring that environment through play, they develop many important skills that form the foundations of later academic learning and prepare them for later formal education (Vygotsky, 1978).  For example, activities such as working puzzles and building with blocks help children develop skills such as rote counting, knowledge of spatial relationships, and understanding one-to-one correspondence.  These pre-academic skills are the beginnings of children’s understanding of mathematics.  Similarly, activities such as hearing a story read aloud, dictating a story for an adult to write down, and acting out familiar stories through dramatic play help children learn some of the basics of reading: that stories are meaningful and enjoyable, that print corresponds to spoken sounds, and that English is written left to right and top to bottom on a page.  Because most pre-academic skills are learned best through independent exploration and interaction with peers and adults, developmentally appropriate early childhood education is founded on the principle of providing children with adequate and carefully-planned opportunities to explore an enriched environment (Bredekamp & Copple, 1998).

When children begin formal schooling, academic skills become an important indicator of their school success.  Learning to read, write, and do basic mathematics are the basis of most early elementary school curricula and the areas in which most children’s progress is routinely assessed through report card grades and standardized skills beginning in the first grade.  (For a more detailed summary of children’s developing ability to read and write, see the outcome component on Competence in Communication.)  Other subject areas, such as social studies and science, are introduced in the early grades.  Children’s progress in social studies and science often is not formally graded until at least third or fourth grade, when children are expected to have mastered the basics of reading and math well enough to apply those skills to other content areas (Shaffer, 1999).  Other subject areas, such as the arts, music, and physical education, are included in many school curricula because they help children develop well-rounded skills and knowledge of the world around them.  Balanced programs that strive to encourage development of the whole child should include opportunities for physical activity, music, and the arts as an integral part of their curriculum.  (For a more detailed summary and measures of physical activity in children, see the outcome components of Age-Appropriate Physical Development and Physical Fitness under the domain Physical Health).

Many internal and external factors influence children’s pre-academic and academic skills.  Children’s basic intelligence, motivation to succeed, and attitude toward school and learning have important effects on their successful mastery of academic skills.  External influences such as family involvement in school, high-quality developmentally appropriate school curricula, and well-trained, sensitive teachers also affect children’s academic success (Berk, 1996).  Families’ socioeconomic status can also affect children’s learning. Children who grow up in relatively deprived circumstances are more likely to have long-term academic difficulties than children who grow up in more enriched environments.  The national Head Start initiative was designed to eliminate some of these differences by providing children from low-income homes with enriching experiences during the first few years of life.  Follow-up studies of Head Start participants have shown both short-term and long-term improvements in family involvement, attitudes toward learning, and overall success in many academic areas (Lee et. al, 1988, 1990).  The success of Head Start suggests that comprehensive early intervention efforts can be effective in increasing children’s pre-academic and academic skills over the long term.
 

Suggested Indicators

The following are some appropriate indicators of positive program outcomes for children in the area of pre-academic and academic skills, based on the NCEO model (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), as adapted for community-based programs by the Children’s Outcome Work Group.  The appropriateness of any given indicator for your program evaluation depends on the age of the children you serve, the setting, and the goals and activities of your particular program.
 

• Percent of children who demonstrate age-appropriate early literacy skills (including pre-reading and reading, writing, and spelling skills)
• Percent of children who demonstrate age-appropriate pre-math and mathematics skills (including one-to-one correspondence, serial ordering, and basic mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction)
• Percent of children who can listen and attend to academic tasks on an age-appropriate level
• Percent of children who are motivated and actively involved in learning tasks
• Percent of children who enjoy school
• Percent of children who participate in and enjoy art and music

Summary

Competence in pre-academic and academic skills enables children to succeed in school and in later life.  State Strengthening projects have the opportunity to help bolster children’s academic success by supporting the development of these skills.  For many children at risk, enriching experiences and one-on-one practice can help them develop crucial reading and mathematics skills that form the foundation of all later education.  Developing these skills can mean the difference between success and failure in school for many children. 

But early intervention is vital.  As Head Start has demonstrated, children at risk who have enriched experiences before they enter kindergarten are more likely to succeed academically than children without such experiences.  Similarly, children at risk who receive intensive help, such as tutoring, during the first few years of elementary school are more likely to read and do math at grade level --- and to have a positive attitude toward school and learning --- than children who do not have the extra help (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).   For State Strengthening projects seeking to improve academic skills, including early intervention and/or intensive academic help in a comprehensive program may be an effective approach.
 

References

 Berk, L. E.   (1996).  Infants, children, and adolescents. (2nd Ed.).  Boston:  Allyn and Bacon.

 Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C (Eds).  (1998).  Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs — Revised edition.  Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

 Johnson, D. S.  (1981).  Naturally acquired learned helplessness:  The relationship of school failure to achievement behavior, attributions, and self-concept.  Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 174 - 180.

 Lee, V. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Schnur, E.  (1988).  Does Head Start work?  A 1-year follow-up comparison of disadvantaged children attending Head Start, no preschool, and other preschool programs.  Developmental Psychology, 24, 210 - 222.

 Lee, V. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Schnur, E., & Liaw, F.  (1990).  Are Head Start effects sustained?  A longitudinal follow-up comparison of disadvantaged children attending Head Start, no preschool, and other preschool programs.  Child Development, 61, 495 - 507.

 Shore, R.  (1997).  Rethinking the brain: New insights into early development.  New York: Families and Work Institute.

 Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.)  (1998).  Preventing reading difficulties in young children.  Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).  Mind in society.  Cambridge, MA:  Harvard University Press. 
 Ysseldyke, J. E., & Thurlow, M. (1993, October). Developing a model of educational outcomes (NCEO Report No. 1). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
 
 

MEASURES:  Demonstrates Competence in Pre-Academic and Academic Skills

The following standardized assessments are provided as examples of measures that may be useful for evaluation of children’s pre-academic and academic skills in community-based programs.  This listing is not comprehensive and is not intended as an endorsement of any particular measure.  Some of the assessment instruments that follow are copyrighted and require specific levels of training to administer.  Prices of measures are subject to change.  In deciding to use any standardized measures or checklists, it is important to review specific items and subscales to decide how well they fit your program.

Even though general intelligence is one important predictor of children’s academic skills, measures of general intelligence (such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and the Slosson Intelligence Test) are not included on this list for two reasons.  First, such measures require a high level of expertise in standardized measurement to administer.  Most community-based State Strengthening projects probably will not have staff with sufficient training to accurately administer, score, and interpret the results of these general intelligence measures.  Second, children’s general intelligence, as measured in an IQ score, is considered a relatively stable quality.  IQ is not likely to change significantly as a result of community-based programs.  The list below includes measures of academic skills that are more appropriate to community-based projects because they measure skills that are more likely to be improved by high-quality community programming efforts.

It is important to recognize that standardized measures, such as the ones listed below, are not the only appropriate ways to assess academic skills in children.  Especially for school-aged children, existing school records may provide important data on academic success, including report card grades and scores on standardized tests such as the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS).  Locally-developed checklists or surveys of classroom teachers may provide additional information about children’s competence in reading, writing, mathematics, and other academic skill areas.
 

1.  Battelle Developmental Inventory Screening Test   J. Svinicki
Date:  1984

Subtests:

Personal-Social
Adaptive
Motor (Gross and Fine)
Communication (Receptive and Expressive)
Cognitive

Riverside Publishing
425 Spring Lake Drive
Itasca, IL  60143-2079
Phone:  1-800-323-9540

$261.00 for complete BDI program, including BDI screening program

Birth through age 8 years

Designed to assess key developmental skills in children from birth to age 8. This assessment will provide a good developmental screening of children and can be used to monitor children’s developmental progress and to identify developmentally delayed children. This version of the Battelle takes about 20 minutes per child to administer.  A longer version called the Battelle Developmental Inventory is also available for more in-depth assessments.

2.  Child Observation Record (COR) High/Scope
Date: 1992

Subtests:

Academic Achievement
Coping Strategies
Self-Esteem
Social Skills
Problem Solving Skills 

High/Scope Educational Research Foundation
600 North River Street
Ypsilanti, MI 48198
Phone:  (313) 485-2000 

Target Audience:

Ages 2 ½ to 6 years

COR is a teacher checklist developed by the High Scope Educational Research Foundation for assessment of preschoolers. This measure has become the assessment of choice for some evaluators of community-based preschool prevention programs because it is behaviorally focused, can be used in parts (subscales), and is not excessively time-consuming for teachers or program staff to administer. The COR has been successfully used with low-income and ethnic minority populations.

Subtests:

 Motor Development
 Concepts Development
 Language Development
 Self-Help Development
 Social Development

 American Guidance Service
 4201 Woodland Road,  P. O. Box 99
 Circle Pines, MN 55014-1796
 Phone: 1-800-328-2560

$349.95 for complete kit to assess 50 children 

Children ages 3 years 0 months through 6 years 11 months

The Dial-3 is a revision of the Dial-R screening tool for early childhood.  It is a global screening tool that provides a general assessment of children’s developmental readiness in each of the five subtest areas. Some training is required to administer the Dial-3. Forms and manuals are available in both English and Spanish. An advantage of this assessment is it takes only twenty to thirty minutes to administer.  The kit also includes a short version that requires only 5 minutes to administer per subtest.

Subtests:

 Gross Motor
 Fine Motor
 Cognitive
 Language
 Self Help
 Social Emotional

 Chapel Hill Training-Outreach Project
 800 Eastowne Dr. Ste, 105
 Chapel Hill, NC  27514
 Phone:  (919) 490-5577

$8.50 (98 pages)

 Birth to age 12 months

The ELAP assess both physical growth and developmental profiles of infants.  The ELAP can be administered quickly and provides a fairly comprehensive screening of early development. It was originally used to assess developmental level of children with special needs.  Forms are available in English and Spanish. 

Subtests:

Visual-motor/adaptive
Language and cognition
Gross-motor/body awareness

 Teachers College Press
 P.O. Box 20
 Williston, VT  05495-0020

Contact company for prices

Children ages 4 - 6 years

This assessment identifies children who may need special educational services to perform adequately in school.  This assessment quickly rates the basic skills of children.  It provides a comprehensive screening of children who may have special educational needs when used in conjunction with other measures, including a parent questionnaire, a medical examination and hearing and vision testing.  This is not an IQ test, nor is it intended for use as a school readiness or entry examination. The ESI-2 takes about 20 minutes to administer.

Subtests:

Academic Abilities
Scientific Thinking
Social Studies
The Arts
Physical Development
Personal and Social Development
Language and Literacy
Mathematical Thinking

 The Work Sampling System
 Rebus Planning Associates, Inc.
 1103 South University Ave.
 Ann Arbor, Michigan  48104

Target Audience:

  Preschool through Grade 3

This measure is a series of checklists used to assist teachers in observing, recording and evaluating an individual child’s skills, knowledge, behaviors, and accomplishments.  The behaviors and skills assessed are those considered to be developmentally appropriate for most children in this age range.

Subtests:

The T-CRS consists of two parts, one dealing with classroom problem areas, and one dealing with competency areas. The subscales are empirically derived.
Problem Area Subscales: 
Acting Out Behaviors
Shy-Anxious Behaviors
Learning Skills
Competency Subscales: 
Frustration Tolerance
Assertive Social Skills
Task Orientation
Peer Social Skills

 Primary Mental Health Project, Inc.
 685 South Ave.
 Rochester, NY 14620-1345
 Phone: 716-262-2920
 FAX: 716-262-4761 

30 cents/form. For an additional 50 cents/form, forms can be computer scored at PMHP, which will provide summaries and individual profiles. Students using the T-CRS for their own research (theses and dissertations) can request permission to reproduce the measure free of charge.

Primarily used with kindergarten through third grade children, but has been successfully used with preschoolers through high school aged children, with minor adaptation of some items (e.g., "Learning academic skills" in preschool settings would be interpreted as age-appropriate school-readiness skills).

The T-CRS is a 38-item behaviorally-oriented checklist completed by teachers or program staff. Tends to be well-accepted by teachers and program staff because it is quick (3-5 minutes per child), and assesses relative strengths and weaknesses. T-CRS may be used either as a quick screening tool to assess children's emotional, behavioral, social, and general school adaptation, or as a pretest-post test measure to evaluate progress. It may be used at either individual or group levels for evaluation purposes. Although developed for evaluation of social skills intervention programs in school settings, the T-CRS has been used in other community-based group settings for children in this age range. Separate norms are available for males and females, and for urban and non-urban residents.

8.  Survey of School Attitudes: Primary.  T. P. Hogan
Date: 1975

Subtests: 

 Reading/Language
 Mathematics
 Science
 Social Studies

Psychological Corporation
555 Academic Court
San Antonio, TX 78204-0952

Contact company for prices

Children in Grades 1, 2, and 3

The Survey of School Attitudes measures children’s reactions to four major areas of school curriculum:  language arts and reading, mathematics, science, and social studies.  No reading is required; an adult reads item "stems" and students provide reactions.  The measure takes about 40 minutes to administer and should be administered in two sittings.

Academic and Functional Literacy	Bibliography
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