Below are but a few examples of educational theoretical perspectives regarding adolescents. Due to the diversity of issues when discussing adolescents and the school experience, the reader should be aware that other many other theoretical perspectives do in fact exist and that some of these theories are subsumed under the individual subject headings listed throughout this bibliography. 
 
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989). Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century. New York: Carnegie Corporation.

Outlined is the Council's recommendations for improving the educational experiences of middle-school students. For those at risk of being left behind suggestions include creating smaller educational communities; the teaching of a core academic program that promotes healthy ethical behavior and responsible citizenship; the elimination of achievement tracking systems and the promotion of cooperative learning; staffing middle school with teachers especially trained for the developmental experience of adolescents; and the reengagement of families and communities in the education of young adolescents. The text contains discussions and examples of each of these components.

Juvonen, J., & Wentzel, K. R. (1996). Social motivation: Understanding children's school adjustment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

The authors represented in this volume are researchers in educational and developmental psychology. Their research focuses on trying to understand why and how some children seem to thrive in school while others fail. Individual chapters examine the role of peers and teachers when it comes to communicating and reinforcing school-related attitudes, expectations, and definitions of self. Following an introduction by Kathryn R. Wentzel the book is divided into two parts. Part I deals with social motivation and perspectives on self. Topics include examinations of teacher and classmate influences on scholastic motivation, social self-discrepancy, motivational opportunities and obstacles, and self-presentation tactics promoting teacher and peer approval. Part II examines social motivation and perspectives on relationships. Topics examined in this section include interpersonal relationships in the school environment, friends' influences on school adjustment, peer networks, and classroom engagement, and the influence of peers on academic dropping out. The articles are informative, comprehensive and contain bibliographies. Contributor affiliation and contact information is set forth at the beginning of the book.

Ogbu, J. U. (1990). Minority education in comparative perspective. Journal of Negro Education, 59(1), 45-57.

Discussed are the differences in the school adjustment and academic performance of minority groups. The author argues that in understanding the relative success or failure of a minority student's social or academic performance one must first recognize that there are different minority groups, who respond to experiences and to schooling differently. Specifically discuss and contrasted are: autonomous minorities (i.e., Jews, Mormons), immigrant minorities, whose immigration may have been more or less voluntary, and involuntary or caste-like minorities, those who became a part of a society through slavery, conquest, or colonization. Discussed are the societal and social factors that have led to immigrant and involuntary minorities not receiving equal educational opportunities.

Ryan, B., Adams, G. R., Gullotta, T. P., Weissberg, R. P., & Hampton, R. L. (1995). The family-school connection: Theory, Research, and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

The authors in this volume examine the nature of the relationships among contemporary family variables and the success of children in school. In Part I authors Ryan and Adams present a model of family-school relationships which is the building block for evaluating family variables and the success of children in school. Among the topics discussed around this model are parent-child interactions, national patterns of school and family connectedness in the middle grades, and the impact of family environment. Part II focuses on issues: school performance and the role of parental conflict and divorce, truancy and family processes, intergenerational influences on child outcomes, and a community-based system of family support services. In addition to extensive bibliographies following each chapter, the volume contains an appendix complied by Bruce Ryan entitled, The family-school connection: A research bibliography.

Sibereisen, R. K. & Todt, E. (1994). Adolescence in context: The interplay of family, school, peers, and work in adjustment. New York: Springer-Verlag.

This book consists of an interdisciplinary group of contributors who discuss the development of adolescents as it takes place in various contexts. Discussed are investigative personal attitudes and contextual features conducive to adolescent development and the interaction among contexts that provide opportunities in their own right. The various chapters, which are well referenced, contain studies by the contributors and concentrate on the continuum of positive adjustment to maladaptive outcomes that can occur during adolescence. This continuum taps no only setting-specific behaviors, but also attitudes, beliefs, and values that give actions direction. The main sections target: introduction, social contexts and the development of orientations for life, the impact of cultural and ethnic contexts, the family-work nexus, the interplay between school and work, and the sample case of aggressive behavior.

Transition from middle-school to high school:

Barone, C., Aquirre-Deandries, A. I., & Trickett, E. J. (1991). Means-end problem-solving skills, life stress, and social support as mediators of adjustment in the normative transition to high school. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19(2), 207-225.

The transition of 82 adolescents from middle school to 9th grade was examined. The transition was found to accompany a decline in GPA and attendance, with changes persisting or worsening over the course of the year. Means-end problem-solving skills did not predict levels of post-transition support. A differential model of the role of the individual and environmental resources in transition is supported by the results.

Felner, R.D., Brand, S., Adan. A. M., Mulhall, P. F., Flowers, N., Sartain, B., & DuBoise, D. L. (1993). Restructuring the ecology of the school as an approach to prevention during school transitions: Longitudinal follow-ups and extensions of the School Transitional Environment Project (STEP). Prevention in Human Services, 10(2). 103-136.

The School Transitional Environment Project (STEP) provides a unobtrusive and minimally disruptive preventive intervention for those students experiencing normative transitions into middle schools and high schools. The program is based on a transactional-ecological model of preventive intervention. This model uses school restructuring and a transformation approach to preventing negative effects of school transitions and attempts to create a school environment that is developmentally enhancing. STEP's core components seek to change the ecological characteristics of the school setting in ways that: 1) reduce the adaptational demands of coping with the flux and complexity that occurs in new school settings, 2) increase access to critical emotional and academic support and guidance from school staff and other students, 3) increase the student's sense of connectedness and belonging within the school. Two ways these changes are made is by restructuring the school social system and restructuring the homeroom teacher's role and increasing teacher support. Reports from a longitudinal study suggests that those students in STEP schools show a reduction in drop-out rates and a significant positive effect for school performance and attendance patterns. Subsequent studies during the transition year have been consistent in showing those students in STEP schools displaying better adjustment outcomes across academic, socio-emotional, and behavioral domains and reporting more positive school experiences.

Gillock, K. L., & Reyes, O. (1996). High school transition-related changes in urban minority students' academic performance and perceptions of self and the school environment. Journal of Community Psychology, 24(3), 245-261.

This study examines 8th grade, predominately minority urban adolescents in order to document the magnitude and direction of change in relationships between school perceptions, self-perceptions, and academic performance. Data gathered from self-reported, paper-and-pencil measures obtained at pre-transition (middle of the 8th grade) and post-transition (end of 9th grade) were used in the analyses. Measures used were the School Sentiment Index, the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, and GPA. Over the course of the transition, teacher variables relating to student self-perceptions and academic performance were found to be important to the overall pattern of change in relationships. A strong relationship was found between a student's GPA and their absenteeism rate. However, a decrease in absence rates was not found to correspond with changes in either school- or self-perceptions. Limitations of the study due to sample size are discussed as well as the need for a more in-depth, prospective study to uncover the causal nature of the relationships between self- and school perceptions and academic performance.

Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., & Eccles, J. S. (1989). Change in teacher efficacy and student self-and task-related beliefs in mathematics during the transition to junior high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 247-258.

These authors used a longitudinal study of 1,329 students and the mathematics teachers these students had both before and after their transition to junior high schools in order to examine the relation between students' beliefs in mathematics and their teachers' sense of efficacy. Data was collected from a 2 year, 4 wave panel study (fall and spring of 1983-84 and 1984-85 school years; The Transitions at Early Adolescence Project). The sample consisted of twelve school districts located in middle-income communities in Southeastern Michigan. Measures included assessment of teacher efficacy, student self- and task related beliefs in mathematics, and student achievement in mathematics. Results of repeated measures MANOVA suggest that the rate of change within the school year in students' expectancies, perceived performance, and perceived task difficulty in math differed at Year 1 and Year 2, depending on teacher efficacy before and after the transition. A consistent relationship was found between teacher's beliefs about their personal efficacy and students' beliefs about their performance and potential in mathematics and the difficulty of the subject matter. Support was also found for changes in students' beliefs within the school year being related to their teachers' sense of efficacy. Patterns in students' beliefs were different for those students moving from high-to-low efficacy teachers than those students moving from low-to-high efficacy teachers. Implications for changes in the classroom and future academic performance are discussed.

Reyes, O., & Hedeker, D (1993). Identifying high-risk students during school transition. Prevention in Human Services, 10(2), 137-150.

A preventive, community-based program was designed by the authors to facilitate high school transition and reduce dropouts using participants who were predominately Hispanic inner-city 9th grade students. The variable used for identifying high risk for failure was school absences. Students at risk for dropping out were identified on the basis of a) being from low-income families, b) residing in an ethnic minority and low-income neighborhood, and c) transitioning from grade school (grades K-8) into high school. Three components were emphasized: 1) the role of the homeroom teacher was redefined, 2) the school environment was reorganized to reduce school flux and, 3) the parents were provided feedback on the students' progress. Students were assigned to either an experimental or control condition. Data were collected from the students' academic records and other departmental sources. Academic Adjustment measures served as the primary source of information and included ranking, GPA, number of courses failed, etc. Behavioral Adjustment measures data relating to dropout and counseling referral were collected at the end of the 9th grade year. The results indicated that compared to low and middle-absence groups, those students with high absence rates experienced more pronounced increases in school absence and decreases in academic achievement. Implications and directions for further research in school transitions are discussed.

Mentoring:

Bernard, B. (1992). Mentoring programs for urban youth: Handle with care. Western Regional Center for Drug-Free Schools and Communities, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, Portland, Oregon.

Mentoring, which evolves from the theory of social capital, has emerged as a popular intervention strategy in the last decade. The author of this article reviews the literature on the mentoring movement focusing mainly on disadvantaged urban youth and the rationale for this particular approach. She then reviews the characteristics of effective mentoring relationships and programs, and the implications and issues that surround this strategy for risk and prevention policy. Mentoring has found popularity due to demographic shifts that indicated that the traditional providers, i.e., family and community, are not longer able to provide what is termed social capital for the adolescent population. An effective mentoring relationship is one where the adult attitude is such that they view adolescents as resources to be nurtured and not as a problem to be fixed. Included are clear and specific guidelines for developing planned mentoring programs.

Blechman, E. A. (1992). Mentors for high-risk minority youth: From effective communication to bicultural competence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21(2), 160-169.

Presented is a contextually based social-learning formulation for successful mentoring programs with emphasis on mentors who are bi-culturally competent. Mentoring programs have become viewed by many as an effective way to build resiliency against delinquency, school dropping out, teen pregnancy, unemployment, and overall feelings of alienation in adolescents. The author defines mentoring as a process whereby an experienced individual transmits knowledge to a protégé. Mentors can include teachers, social workers, or religious and community volunteers. They may also be recruited from conventional programs such as the Big Brother or Big Sister programs. Effective communication and coping skills help promote bicultural competence. An adolescent who is bi-culturally competent has a chance for the best of both worlds. Discussed are mentor selection, the administration of mentoring programs, supervision of mentors, and measuring the mentors' impact. Additional comments are made with reference to mentoring single mothers, the integration of family-skills training, classroom achievement, and peer communication training with mentoring.

Haensly, P. A., & Parsons, J. L. (1993). Creative, intellectual, and psychosocial development through mentorship: Relationships and stages. Youth & Society, 25(2), 202-221.

Presented is a developmental theory of mentoring proposing that mentoring may facilitate the task accomplishments uniquely characteristic of the early life stages. Mentoring of adolescents in high school provides the adolescent with unique ways of learning within a particular discipline, allows for experiencing one's own capabilities, and the development of creativity and intellectual capabilities. Mentors, who function as role models, provide a safe environment for experimentation and learning, not only of potential skills but competencies in various areas. The developmental theory is presented using an ecological approach to human and creativity development. Following from this is a brief discussion of Erikson's psychosocial stages, developmental tasks, and conflicts, concluding with an elaboration of the contribution of mentoring that is made to adolescent psychosocial development. The article concludes with a discussion of mentoring in the educational setting, the need for mentoring in this environment, its value, and how to make it work.

Rhodes, J. E. (1994). Older and wiser: Mentoring relationships in childhood and adolescence. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 14(3), 187-196.

Reviewed and synthesized is the literature of several fields with respect to mentoring. Mentoring is usually defined as a relationship between an experienced, older mentor and a younger, unrelated protegee. Mentors typically provide guidance, instruction, and encouragement with the goal of building competence and character in the adolescent or protegee. It is suggested by some that mentor relationships can substitute for the absence of strong parental bonds. Included is a brief review of the literature on social support and resilience followed by conceptual and programmatic issues. Natural mentoring which emerges from the adolescents' social networks is distinguished from assigned mentoring programs such as those found in some schools and religious communities.

Tutoring, cross-age teaching, and cooperative learning:

Samway, K. D., Whang, G., & Pippitt. (1995). Buddy Reading: Cross-age Tutoring in a Multicultural School. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

This book discusses the experiences of the authors in establishing and maintaining a cross-age reading program in a multiethnic, multilingual inner-city school. The program involved children and youth, most acquiring English as a nonnative language. Growth was witnessed in both the students as teachers and learners. Suggestions are offered for setting up and maintaining a program, preparing students for the buddy system, training the tutors, discussion of tutor influence, set up and organization of the classroom, using observations in decision making, and the importance of conducting classroom research. In addition, practical suggestions are made for difficulties likely to arise. The appendix includes an extensive list popular books and magazines for buddy reading.

Sharan, S. (1990). Cooperative Learning: Theory and Research. New York: Praeger Publishers.

This collection of writings discusses how research and theory contribute to the understanding of cooperative learning and the effects of cooperative learning as a set of instructional methods has on students and practitioners. The chapters are contributed by researchers and educators and cover a diverse range of topics related to cooperative learning. Among the themes are cooperative learning and achievement, team learning, methods for assessing causal mechanisms, treatment of status problems in the classroom, cooperative learning as a part of a comprehensive program designed to promote prosocial development, and a model for embedding cooperative learning in the curriculum and school.

Alienation and school withdrawal:

Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59(2), 117-142.

This paper discusses two models, the frustration-self-esteem model, and the participation-identification model, for understanding dropping out as a developmental process. The frustration-self-esteem model, often used to explain delinquency, is based on the underlying premise that poor school performance is a progressive state that leads to an impaired self-view. An impaired self-view is seen as resulting from frustration or embarrassment. Increased frustration and embarrassment may lead to inappropriate behavior that becomes more disruptive with age. One outcome is increasing attention on the out behavior and less on learning, thereby reducing leaning opportunities even further. As the student falls further and further behind they may become more of a problem, leading to dropping or suspension. The participation-identification model emphasized the need for students to develop and maintain some form of attachment to the school. Active participation in school and classroom activities and a concomitant feeling of identification are discussed as mediating school outcomes such as disruptive behavior, absenteesim, truancy, dropout, and delinquency. The article contains a fairly through literature review of research related to the two models and an agenda for further research.

Finn, J. D., & Voelkl, K. E. (1993). School Characteristics related to student engagement. Journal of Negro Education, 62(3), 249-268.

Discussed are the structural and regulatory environments of schools in identifying those features associated with higher levels of engagement. Engagement is a term used analogously with school involvement. Engagement is discussed as containing both behavioral and emotional components. The behavioral component is labeled participation and the emotional component labeled identification. Both are viewed as essential to achieving positive school outcomes. The present investigation looks at two sets of school characteristics considered as antecedents in promoting engagement. The first is the structural environment, which includes school size and racial/ethnic composition of the students. The second is the regulatory environment and is reflected in the degree of structure and rigidity of school procedures, and punitiveness of the disciplinary system. These characteristics were investigated using a sample of 6,488 8th grade students from 758 public schools nationwide. Results indicated that when the school enrollment size was smaller absenteeism was lower, classroom participation was better, and the environment was viewed as warmer and more supportive.

Lee, V. E., & Smith, J. B. (1995). Effects of high school restructuring and size on early gains in achievement and engagement. Sociology of Education, 68, 241-270.

Investigated is the impact of attending a high school whose practices were consistent with the school-restructuring movement. Data was obtained from the 1988 National Educational Longitudinal Study and included a sample of 11,794 sophomores from 830 high schools nationwide. In setting up their hypotheses, the authors discuss the difficulties in embedding empirical research in the theoretical framework for school restructuring. Compared were schools engaging in restructuring reform, those engaged in only traditional reforms, and those with no reforms. Results indicate that gains in achievement and school engagement were significantly higher in those schools with restructuring practices and lower in schools without reforms. Higher engagement and achievement were consistently associated with smaller school size. The article contains a comprehensive results section with the results being discussed in terms of policy implications. Appendixes contain technical issues, a description of the construction of variables for all measures, and HLM models.

Acculturation and ethnic issues in academic success/failure:

Garcia,-Vazquez, E & Ehly, S. W. (1994). Acculturation and intelligence: Effects of acculturation on problem-solving. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78(2), 501-502.

23 middle school adolescents of Mexican-American descent were analyzed on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised and the Acculturation Quick Screen. Results indicated that those students who were more acculturated to the school environment had higher verbal IQ scores compared to adolescents less acculturated. Authors discuss the implication that the enhancement of problem-solving skills does not have to occur at the expense of language or culture.

Osborne, J. W. (1997). Race and academic disidentification. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4), 728-735.

Disidentification is about the lack of a relationship between academic and global self-evaluation. Identification with academics is considered an important factor in academic success. Previous research has found evidence that the relatively poor academic outcomes exhibited by African American adolescents are attributable to a system of schooling that causes them to "disidentify" with academics. Examined were data from the National Education Longitudinal Study which began in 1988. The original data contained 24,599 eighth-grade students representing 1,052 high schools in the United States. For the purposes of this study only those African American, White, and Hispanic students who had data from each of the three data points were included (n = 15,037) . Results of the analysis indicated that in general, African American adolescent boys remained disidentified while not other group showed significant disidentification. Across the content areas (history, math, science, and reading), identification or disidentification did not seem to vary.

Reyes, O., & Jason, L. A. (1993). Pilot study examining factors associated with academic success for Hispanic high school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22(1), 57-71.

This study was conducted in order to better understand successful high school students. Examined are 48 Hispanic 10th grade students at a large urban high school located in an economically depressed Hispanic neighborhood serving predominately Hispanic and low-income students. Students (ages 15-17) were matched on age and ability to within 6 months of each other. A 50 minute structured interview was conducted with the student having the option of being interviewed in their native Spanish language by interviewers who were bilingual. Participants also completed the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (1969). Items assessed were family background, family support, overall school satisfaction, gang pressures, and self-concept. High and low risk groups were identified on the basis of 9th grade attendance rates and course failures. Results indicate no significant differences were found between the groups on age and ability. Low-risk students, compared to high-risk students, were found to be more satisfied with their school and to maintain a social group predominately free of gang members. Findings are discussed in terms of variables contributing to students' success.

Wood, P. B. & Clay, W. C. (1996). Perceived structural barriers and academic performance among American Indian high school students. Youth & Society, 28(1), 40-61.

The literature concerning the academic failure of the American Indian adolescent has primarily centered around individual or cultural factors. Specifically it has centered on the discontinuity hypothesis which suggests the incompatibility of the cultural belief systems of some minority groups with an Anglo-dominated society, and specifically, the American Public school system. Wood and Clay suggest an alternative, structural based explanation which emphasizes the role of perceived structural barriers to upward mobility within the stratification system. They tested whether perceptions or assumptions concerning the value of education as a means of upward mobility are important determinants of academic motivation, and consequently, academic performance. The 1991 sample consisted of 352 American Indian and 1,000 White high school students residing in the Midwest. Multivariate analyses indicated that perceived structural constraints play a significant role in reducing academic performance among American Indian youth. Directions for future study are suggested.

Academic success/failure and teen pregnancy:

Allen, J. P., Philliber, S., Herrling, S., & Kuperminc, G. P. (1997). Preventing teen pregnancy and academic failure: Experimental evaluation of a developmentally based approach. Child Development, 64(4), 729-742.

Two social problems facing teenagers that are important due to their persistence and costly consequences are teen pregnancy and school failure. These authors conducted a true experimental evaluation of a national volunteer service program, Teen Outreach. Participants were 625 high school students from 25 sites nationwide who were enrolled in the program from 1991 through 1995. Students were randomly assigned to either a Teen Outreach or Control and were assessed at both program entry and at program exit 9 months later. The Teen Outreach program consists of three interrelated elements: supervised community volunteer service, classroom-based discussions of service experience, and classroom-based discussions and activities related to key social-developmental tasks of adolescents. Participants completed a self-report background information questionnaire and self-reported questionnaire assessing problem behaviors. Results indicated the Teen Outreach program substantially reduced the rates of teen pregnancy, course failure, and school suspension during the year of the program, even after accounting for student socio-demographic characteristics and entry differences between the groups. Discussion focuses on why the program has a positive effect, limitations of the study, and suggestions for follow-up and future study.

Academic success/failure and the working student:

Kablaoui, B. N., & Pautler, A. J. (1991). The effects of part-time work experience on high school students. Journal of Career Development, 17(3), 195-211.

This article discusses the relationship between adolescent employment and academic achievement of high school students. Data for the investigation was obtained from microfiche, journal articles, dissertations, and published books covering a 10-year span. The authors report the negative effect of employment has been found in the areas of grades, homework, extracurricular activities, behavior, and academic relationships. Positive effects of employment have been found with respect to increased personal responsibility and earning power, the development of social skills, improved grades, participation in school-related activities, lower unemployment, and better jobs after graduation.

McNeal Jr., R. B. (1997). Are students being pulled out of high school? The effect of adolescent employment on dropping out. Sociology of Education, 70, 206-220.

In this article the author examines the relationship between adolescent employment and dropping out of school. Specific hypotheses were the type of job related to dropping out, the type of job as mediating the effect on the relationship between employment intensity and dropping out, and was, type of job, intensity of employment, and dropping out significantly different for male and female adolescents. Data was obtained from the High School and Beyond database of which 20,493 cases were used. Findings indicate that type of employment and intensity significantly affects dropping out, but the effect of employment intensity was found to be mediated by the type of job held. Gender differences were found for type of employment held. In summary the author suggests that some jobs are detrimental, some beneficial, and some have to significant relationship to dropping out.

Mihalic, S. W. & Elliott, D. (1997). Short- and long-term consequences of adolescent work. Youth & Society, 28(4), 464-498.

These authors examine the effect of working during adolescence in seeking to identify the short- and long-term effects of an early transition to work. Data from the National Youth Survey (NYS) were used. Among the short-term effects for school performance were statistically significant relationships for involvement in school (time spent studying), current school aspirations, and involvement in school activities. Working was found to decrease study time and school aspirations. However, on the positive side, it was found that adolescents who work, especially White adolescents, were more involved in school activities. Alcohol and marijuana use were found to be highest among those who worked over 20 hours a week and had worked for two consecutive class sessions. Substance abuse habits were additionally found to persist into adulthood.

Mortimer, J. T., Finch, M. D., & Ryu, S. (1996). The effects of work intensity on adolescent mental health, achievement, and behavioral adjustment: New evidence from a prospective study. Child Development, 67, 1243-1261.

These authors investigate the relationship between academic achievement, mental health, and behavioral adjustment with the effects of work intensity using a panel study of randomly selected midwestern urban 9th graders. Data was obtained from four waves and 93% of the initial 1,000 participants were retained over the 4-year period. Measured were two indicators of school achievement: the amount of time spent doing homework and self-reported grade point average. An adolescent was considered employed if they were working at least once a week, outside their homes, for pay. The results indicated that those adolescents who worked at a higher intensity engaged in more alcohol use. Intensity was defined as the number of hours worked per week. Those students working 20 hours or less, overall had higher grade point averages than did those who were not employed. No effect was found that working was consistently deleterious. Further, the data indicated there was no evidence high-intensity work promoted getting into trouble at school. The limitations of the study are discussed.

Smith, C. L., & Rojewski, J. W. (1993). School-to-work transition: Alternatives for educational reform. Youth & Society, 25(2), 222-250.

Examined and synthesized are the six key components needed for successful adolescent school-to-work transition programs. These components include coordinated, nonfragmented services, educational-business partnerships that result in paid work experiences, relevance in learning process through linkage of instruction and work, career counseling and guidance, program accountability, and a wide range of career/employment options available upon completion of the transition program. Beginning with the current state of the problem and proceeding to pedagogical alternatives for preparing students for the transition from school to work, the authors identify and explain various types of school-to-work transition programs. Four desired program adolescent outcomes are discussed. These four outcomes consist of: connecting theory with practice, developing personal and career maturity, gaining personal awareness, and attaining professional insight.

Self-concept, stress and anxiety in academic success/failure:

Kiselica, M. S., Baker, S. B., Thomas, R. N., & Reedy, S. (1994). Effects of stress inoculation training on anxiety, stress, and academic performance among adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41(3), 335-342.

This study is based on the premise that the school environment is considered a source of anxiety-related problems experienced by adolescents. Highly anxious adolescents have been found to have lower school achievement and school aptitude. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) is a counseling paradigm showing promise for psychoeducational and prevention programs. SIT contains three overlapping phases: education, coping-skills training, and application and is easily adapted to group interventions. Hypothesized were the intervention would produce significantly reduced symptoms related to stress and to greater improvements in academic performance. Participants were 48 9th grade White high school students from a small rural community. Support was found that suggests the SIT may be an effective preventive anxiety-management and psychosocial-adjustment strategy for adolescents. However, SIT was not effective in enhancing academic performance.

Mboya, M. M. (1989). The relative importance of global self-concept and self-concept of academic ability in predicting academic achievement. Adolescence, 24(93), 39-46.

This study was designed to investigate whether the relationship between self-concept of academic ability and academic achievement was correlated more strongly than the relationship between global self-concept among adolescent high school students. The results indicated that global self-concept and self-concept of academic ability correlated positively with academic achievement. Discussed is the likelihood of educational intervention strategies being more successful if they focus on enhancement of the self-concept component of academic ability rather than on global self-concept.

Academic success/failure and extracurricular activities:

Mahoney, J. L. & Cairns, R. B. (1997). Do extracurricular activities protect against early school dropout? Developmental Psychology, 33(2), 241-253.

These authors investigate the relation between adolescent involvement in school-based extracurricular activities and early school dropout using a longitudinal assessment of 392 grade adolescents. Initial assessment took place in the 7th grade and continued annually through the 12th grade. Early school dropout was defined as a failure to complete the 11th grade. Their findings indicate the dropout rate among at-risk students to be somewhat lower for those who had earlier participated in extracurricular activities compared to those who did not. Among those judged to be competent or highly competent during middle school, only a modest relation was found between extracurricular participation and early school dropout. Participation in extracurricular activities was linked to lower early school dropout rates in both boys and girls, especially for those who were at risk for dropout. Implications for future research on extracurricular activities are discussed. It is suggested that this particular type of research should be extended beyond high school in order to assess long-term pattern adaptation linkages.

Marsh, H. W. (1992). Extracurricular activities: Beneficial extension of the traditional curriculum or subversion of academic goals? Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 553-562.

Examined were the effects of total extracurricular activity participation (TEAP) during the last two years of high school using longitudinal data on 36 sophomore students from each of 1,015 high schools. Only student who attended the same high school in their sophomore and senior years were used in the final analysis (n = 10,613). TEAP has a small but statistically significant and positive relationship on 17 of 22 outcomes. Participation in extracurricular activities, even those not obviously associated with academic achievement shows an apparent increase in commitment to school and school values. This in turn has an indirect effect on increased academic success.

McNeal, Jr., R. B. (1995). Extracurricular activities and high school dropouts. Sociology of Education, 68, 62-81.

Investigated are the voluntary or behavioral attributes that may be associated with dropping out of high school. Specifically examined were the type of student involvement e.g., athletics, fine arts, academic clubs, and vocational clubs, in formal school activities and its impact on the likelihood of dropping out. Data was taken from the first wave (1980) of the HSB (National Center for Educational Statistics). HSB data were compiled using a multilevel cluster sampling technique where the first level consisted of regions within the United States and the next level being a probability sample of schools. The final HSB sample included 735 regular public high schools with an oversampling of selected subgroups. Results indicate that participation in athletics and fine arts, but not participation in vocational or academic clubs, significantly reduced the likelihood of dropping out. Participation in fine arts and athletics was found to serve as an intervening variable in the dropping out process, magnifying the direct relationship between race, gender, academic ability, and dropping out. The finding persisted even after controlling for crucial dropout and pullout forces. Implications for the findings are discussed.

Dropouts, suspensions, and expulsions:

Chavez, E. L., Oetting, E. R., & Swaim, R. C. (1994). Dropout and delinquency: Mexican-American and Caucasian non-Hispanic youth. Journal of Clinical and Child Psychology, 23(1), 47-55.

Examined was delinquent behavior among Mexican-American and Caucasian non-Hispanic dropouts, students with academic problems, and a control group. The control group was randomly selected from the dropouts' school and matched on sex, ethnicity, and grade in school (last grade attended by dropout). Data was collected from students in three communities in two southwestern states. The communities were defined as urban (350,000), mid-sized (90,000), and small (30,000). A total of 1,637 participants were surveyed. Questions in the survey addressed delinquent behavior and included 46 questions ranging from driving violations to weapons use. Results indicated a consistent relation between academic status and delinquent behavior. This was found for both males and females. The strongest factor for predicting delinquent behavior was academic status. Dropouts were the group most likely to be involved in every type of delinquent behavior. A primary difference was found with dropping out of school: Mexican-American adolescents drop out of school at a greater rate than do Caucasian non-Hispanic adolescents. Being in trouble academically increases this risk greatly.

Connell, J. P., Halpern-Felsher, B. L., Clifford, E., Crinchlow, W., & Usinger, P. (1995). Hanging in there: Behavioral, psychological, and contextual factors affecting whether African-American adolescents stay in high school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 10(1), 41-63.

A longitudinal study was used to investigate 443 African-American male and female adolescents from an upstate New York urban school district. Information for the primary analysis began 7th -9th grades (1987-88) with educational risk behavior information obtained from school records in 1988. Enrollment status was checked using school records during their 10th - 12th grade academic year (1990-91). Educational risk behaviors were identified using the 5-Flag identification system and the Rochester Assessment Package for Schools-Student Report, a 204 items student report questionnaire, was used to assess psychological constructs. Neighborhood composition and family economic resources were included as contextual variables. Results indicate that students who avoid risk behaviors in junior high school and reported themselves as more engaged were more likely to remain in school 3 years later. Those students reporting higher levels of engagement reported more positive perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness in the school setting. Males from neighborhoods that were less poor were more likely to remain in high school. Results are discussed in light of motivational and cultural-ecological perspectives.

Ekstrom, R. B., Goertz, M. E., Pollack, J. M., & Rock, D. A. (1994). Who drops out of high school and Why? Findings from a national study. In G. Natriello (Ed.) School Dropouts: Patterns and Policies. New York: Teachers College Press.

Investigated, using longitudinal data, were who drops out, why does one student and not another drop out, what happens to dropouts during the time that their peers remain in school, and what is the impact of dropping out on gains in achievement. Analyses were conducted using data from High School and Beyond which features a stratified national probability sample of about 30,000 high school sophomores attending public and private high schools in 1980. Results indicate that school performance, as measured by grades and extent of problem behavior, is a crucial variable related to dropping out. Problem behavior and grades appear to be determined in part by the home educational support system. Staying in school increases achievement gains in all tested areas regardless of ethnicity, gender, or curriculum choice. Implications discussed include the inability of any one program or policy meeting the needs of a diverse dropout population.

Hymel, S., Comfort, C., Schonert-Reichl, K., & McDougall, P. (1996). Academic failure and school dropout: The influence of peers. In J. Juvonen & K. R. Wentzel (Eds), Social motivation: Understanding children's school adjustment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

The authors examine the impact of social factors on the likelihood of academic failure and school dropout, paying particular attention to the role of peers. This focus is based upon an extension of a model of school motivation proposed by Ryan and Powelson (1991) emphasizing the feelings of relatedness, competency, and autonomy as being critical to education and learning. A review of the literature on the support of peers reveals that rejection by peers during elementary school places students at a higher risk for later dropout though the authors recognize that this process may be more complex that it appears on the surface. Associations with like-minded classmates and the multiple pathways that students can traverse as they negotiate high school are discussed, as well as the need for more research in this area, especially with regards to the positive influences of peers on school values and motivation.

Jordan, W. J., Lara, J., & McPartland, J. M. (1996). Exploring the causes of early dropout among race-ethnic and gender groups. Youth & Society, 28(1), 62-94.

Data is drawn from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, a stratified, random sample of 25,000 8th graders who are followed at 2 year intervals. This data provides a rich source of data on the process of dropping out of school as it takes place from the 8th grade onward. Examined are the reasons different adolescents give for dropping out and the racial/ethnic and gender differences in the plans for further education of early dropouts. Within-school factors (reported by dropouts themselves) were most important for predicting decisions to dropout, i.e., general school alienation, poor relations with teachers, and not liking or feeling welcome at school. Out-side-of school factors out were family and job. Results suggest that the school itself should be able to reduce the dropout problem by changing the conditions that push students away. Further findings indicate that disciplinary suspensions contribute to dropout for African American males to which the authors offer suggestions for alternative remedies. On the positive side, the majority of dropouts did have plans for resuming their education although how this was to be accomplished differed across gender and race-ethnicity. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

MacLean, D.A., & Janzen, H. L. (1994). A framework for keeping students in school. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 10(1), 54-61.

This article presents a framework for keeping children in school by providing an understanding of the underlying purposes and goals of dropout prevention programs based on current research. The authors argue that a review of the literature and the results of their own study suggest that the preventive measures against early school dropout that are most effective consider four factors: 1) community-school relationships, 2) restructuring of the school program, 3) changing the school climate, and 4) changes in procedures for evaluating student performance. Each area of intervention is considered separately. Evidence suggests that dropout programs should focus on two basic and school related goals: enhancing the student's sense of academic fulfillment and strengthening the student's sense of social belonging.

Oakland, T. (1992). School dropouts: Characteristics and prevention. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 1, 201-208.

This article discusses general principals and specific strategies involving youth, schools, and communities in preventing school dropout. It is argued that the goal of intervention programs are two pronged: 1) to provide systems that enable adequate achievement and achievement motivation, passing grades, feelings of affiliation with school and peers, and a stable support system from family, peers, and community; and 2) to be free of those impediments that diminish suitable educational outcomes. Dropouts are defined in terms of critical academic and school qualities, as well as race, gender, and economic factors. Specific recommendations are made for preventing dropouts. Program features should be directed at: 1) utilizing existing resources efficiently, 2) development of additional resources, 3) matching resources with students and, 4) institutionalizing those program features demonstrating the best cost-effectiveness ratios.

Academic success/failure and family, peer, and community relationships:

Evans, W. P., & Carter, M. J. (1997). Urban school-based family counseling: Role definition, practice applications, and training implications. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 366-374.

In order to assist children in becoming more successful in the classroom the authors advocate an increase in family and community involvement in addressing specific barriers to learning. Described is an expanded role of counselors in school-based family counseling in urban school settings which can lead to an improvement in the linkages among families, schools, and the community. The principal component of school-based family counseling involves facilitating a coordinated approach among parents, teachers, and other school personnel in order to assist students in becoming more successful in the classroom. Other components include fostering the school-family-community connection, prevention programming, and staff and organizational development. Included is a discussion of the practical applications of SBFC, implications for counselor training, and a case study of how SBFC addressed a child's behavior problems through the use of both large group, community-based and individual family interventions.

Melby, J. N., & Conger, R. D. (1996). Parental behaviors and adolescent academic performance: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6(1), 113-137.

Using four waves of data obtained from multiple informants, these authors examine the relation of involved parenting and parental hostility on adolescent academic performance. Participants were 347 male and female adolescents who were 7th graders at Year 1. They are a subgroup of a larger study of White, primarily lower middle or middle class, intact families from eight rural agricultural dependent counties in a Midwestern state. Of the original 451 families, 371 participated across all four waves of data collection (1989-1992). Academic performance was assessed through school reports of GPA. Results indicated that a strong relation exists between academic performance at Year 1 and Year 4. Mothers and fathers who displayed more hostile behaviors toward their adolescent in Years 2 and 3 had adolescents who displayed lower academic performance in Year 4. The data were analyzed using a structural equation model to test the empirical adequacy of the conceptual model and this is discussed in detail. The implications and impact of parental involvement and hostility in changing the course of academic achievement in either favorable or unfavorable directions is discussed.

Phelan, P. (1994). Navigating the psychosocial pressures of adolescence: the voices and experiences of high school youth. American Educational Research Journal, 31(2), 415-447.

The author discusses various conditions and circumstances in the adolescent's family, peer relationships, and school worlds perceived as creating pressures and stresses powerful enough to divert the adolescent's attention and interest away from school. Described is the Student's Multiple Worlds Model and Typology composed of 4 student types. Results include the descriptions of the concerns of students within each category.

Simmons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (1991). Parenting factors, social skills, and value commitments as precursors to school failure, involvement in deviant peers, and delinquent behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20(6), 645-664.

Problems in school, value commitments, social skills, and parenting factors were used to construct a model of delinquency using social control theory and social learning theory. Participants were 61 7th grade adolescents from a rural Midwestern community. Criterion for inclusion into the study included the stipulation that both biological parents reside in the home and there was a sibling within four years of age of the 7th grader. Data was collected using a combination of personal interviews and videotaping of family interaction. Results indicate that the variables course work, teachers, and conventional peers accounted for half of the variance in school problems. The model suggests that coercive interpersonal styles may cause adolescents to experience difficulties with peers and school authority figures. This may result in negative labeling and rejection by conventional peers suggesting such behavior increases the probability of association with deviant school peers. Limitations of the study include the use of a highly restricted, non-random sample who were all White and paid for their participation.

Taylor, L. C., Hinton, I. D., & Wilson, M. N. (1995). Parental influences on academic performance in African-American students. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 4(3). 293-302.

Secondary data analysis was conducted on a sub-sample of the National Survey of Family and Household data set. The data set is a multi-stage probability sample of 13,017 families responding to randomly selected screening of households from 100 areas in the US. The database was used to study the relationship between parental influences and academic outcomes for African-American students. Rather than focusing on the traditional research reasons for failure to succeed in school, this study focused on those factors that determine success. The main hypothesis stated that parents who reward and punish their children appropriately, are actively involved with their children, and have high expectations of the child's school performance, will produce academically successful students. Participants were 566 students between the ages of 5 and 18. Results indicated that while parental expectations of ability did not significantly predict academic outcomes, parental involvement, parental nurturance, and parental control were significant predictors of academic outcomes. Parental involvement was found to be a significant predictor of grades. Involvement was defined as plays, talks, reads, takes part in leisure activities, etc. The importance of studying other factors contributing to successful school outcomes are discussed, as well as limitations of the study due to the data source.

Wentzel, K. R. (1994). Family functioning and academic achievement in middle school: A social-emotional perspective. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14(2), 268-291.

This author discusses relations between family functioning and academic achievement in young adolescents. Proposed is that social and emotional adjustment may play a critical role in mediating relations between parenting practices and the academic performance of adolescents. The results are based on data gathered over 4 years and reported in a series of three studies. Findings support the general conclusion that academic performance in middle school is related to adolescents' level of emotional distress and self-restraint. It may be that less than optimal parenting practices affect school performance by the generation of emotional distress, which in turn can affect learning and motivation. Future directions for research in this area are discussed.

Academic success/failure using monetary incentives:

Reid, W. J. & Bailey-Dempsey, C. (1995). The effects of monetary incentives on school performance. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 331-340.

The authors examine the effectiveness of monetary incentives as a means of achieving behavioral changes in adolescent girls at risk for school failure. Sixty girls were matched with respect to age, grade, and referral problem (grades or attendance) and randomly assigned to one of three programs: payment program, cash management program, or the control (no intervention). Multivariate analyses were used to analyze the data. The results show differences in outcomes for grades and absences among the three groups. Both case management and pay programs were superior to the control condition. Case management was superior to the payment program with respect to grades. However, the programs did not differ significantly on attendance. An additional finding showed that in the case management program the self-esteem of the girls increased, but declined for the payment program.

Reid, W. J., Bailey-Dempsey, C., Cain, E., Cook, T. V., & Burchard, J. D. (1994). Cash incentives versus case management: Can money replace services in preventing school failure? Social Work Research, 18(4), 227-236.

This article focuses on the effects of monetary incentives on school performance. Presented is data from a two-year experimental program aimed at improving academic work and attendance of 120 randomly selected adolescent girls at risk of school failure. Those selected were randomly assigned to either a payment program which provided monetary incentives for improvement, a case management program where teachers, students, and parents worked together toward improvement, or the control. Both conditions were superior to the control condition, with the case management program was superior to the payment program. However, neither program had sustained effects that were carried over into the next year. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Academic success/failure and drugs, violence, and victimization:

Beauvais, F., Chavez, E. L., Oetting, E. R., Deffenbacher, J. L., & Cornell, G. R. (1996). Drug use, violence, and victimization among white American, Mexican American, and American Indian dropouts, students with academic problems, and students in good academic standing. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(2), 292-299.

This study evaluates the theoretical prediction that dropping out of school is associated with other problem-prone or deviant behaviors. Drug involvement, perpetration of violence, and being victimized by violence were chosen as markers for problem-prone behaviors. Dropouts from each gender and ethnicity were compared to two matched groups on age, ethnicity, gender, grade in school, and school site in order that comparisons between dropouts and students not be confounded on these characteristics. Participants were 2,015 Mexican-American, American Indian, and White adolescents who had an adequate command of written English. Analysis of variance showed that in comparison to other groups, dropouts showed the highest levels of problem-prone behavior. Findings provide theoretical support and suggest a number of implications for prevention and intervention design.

Social competence in academic success/failure:

Wentzel, K. R. (1991). Relations between social competence and academic achievement in early adolescence. Child Development, 62(5), 1066-1078.

This study examines relations between academic performance and 3 aspects of social competence -- social responsibility, peer relations, and self-regulatory processes. Participants were 423 6th and 7th grade male and female students from a predominately working class, Midwestern community. Academic achievement was indexed by the student grade point average. When accounting for subject's grades, IQ, sex, ethnicity, school absence, and family structure, socially responsible behavior was found to mediate relations between grades and social competence in peer relations and self-regulatory processes. The author argues that the results suggest that socially responsible behavior is critical classroom social competence as well as an important indicator of academic performance in early adolescence.

School reform and restructuring:

Due to the diversity of adolescent issues involved when one discusses school reform and restructuring, in addition to touching upon the subject within this heading, the reader will find references on school reform and restructuring peppered throughout the various topic sections.

Cummins, J. (1986). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. Harvard Educational Review, 56(1), 18-36.

A theoretical framework for assessing minority students' school failure and the relative lack of success of previous school reforms, such as compensatory education and bilingual education are presented. It is suggested that previous attempts have not been successful due to insignificant alterations in the relationships between educators and minority students and between schools and minority communities. Specific suggestions and recommendations are made for remedying the situation and empowering minority youth for school success.

Oakes, J., Quartz, K. H., Gong, J., Guiton, G., & Lipton, M. (1993). Creating middle schools: Technical, normative, and political considerations. The Elementary School Journal, 93(5), 461-480.

Explored in detail is the content of new school reforms. Particular attention is paid to how new school reforms diverge from conventional school practices, school norms, and school politics. Among the issues discussed are how learning settings separate the student and teachers, how curriculums are focused on academic preparation and rarely on practical, everyday life and issues, and emotional and physical distance between the school, the family, and the community. The authors argue that only changing the existing technical practices is not enough to achieve a fundamental change. Implications for change are outlined with an eye toward a new middle school model that has a just distribution of authority, an integrative approach to knowledge, and cooperative forms of learning.

Valdivieso, R., & Nicolau, S. (1994). Look me in the eye: A Hispanic cultural perspective on school reform. In R. J. Rossi (Ed.) Schools and Students at Risk: Context and Framework for Positive Change. New York: Teachers College Press.

Discussed is the difficulty in the social and economic assimilation of Hispanics adolescents due the complexity of identification and cultural background and the lack of parental education which research has shown to be the single largest indicator of success in school. One additional difficulty may be due to Hispanic parents not understanding the differing expectations of their native schools and the American schools. Also the Hispanic delineation of parent and school roles may pose additional difficulties. Parents believe it is their duty to instill respect and proper behavior in their children and for the school to instill knowledge. The authors discuss the need for an understanding of how background factors and conditions that characterize Hispanic students can be matched to school policies in order to promote successful education among the youth. Action is necessary if the cycle of poverty and risk of school failure is to be reduced within the Hispanic community.

Programs and Practices:

American Youth Policy Forum (1997). Some Things do Make a Difference for Youth: A Compendium of Evaluations of Youth Programs and Practices.

Related Journals:

 

American Educational Research

Canadian Journal of School Psychology

Child Development

Educational Leadership

Elementary School Journal

Harvard Educational Review

Journal of Adolescence

Journal of Educational Psychology

Social Education

Sociology of Education

Secondary Databases:

Related Internet Sites:

The Internet-related references and resources cited here are not endorsed by this project. Rather, these resources and references have been provided with the intent of assisting the reader in gathering information available on youth programs.

Association for Childhood Education International. http://www.udel.edu/bateman/acei/

Mission is to promote rights, education, and well being of children from infancy through adolescence. In addition they promote professional growth for educators. Includes electronic resources for later childhood and early adolescence, and educators. A listing of individual student educational web sites, educator web sites, grant opportunities, and conferences are provided.

Children, Youth, and Family Electronic Resources Network. http://www.cyfernet.org

Resource center for children, youth, family, and community information, as well as information from the State Strengthening Projects relating to program development and evaluation, resource tools, and related Internet links.

Preventing youth violence in urban schools: An essay collection. http://eric-web.tc.columbia.edu

Topics: preventing violence in schools; gang activity at school: prevention strategies; and school violence and the legal rights of students.

 

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